Introduction –
Self-Efficacy can be defined as a perceived thought that people have about their abilities to produce a skill. The definition can be broken down into how the individual athlete thinks they will perform, and how the athlete can increase their beliefs in order to perform at their best (Bandura, 1984). After the previous definition was published Bandura refined it to say that self-efficacy is the belief one has in their own capabilities (Bandura, 1977).
As well as multiple definitions for self-efficacy there are also different theories as to how self-efficacy can be damaged or developed as well as sustained. A current theory of self-efficacy written by Feltz, 1984 suggested that there are 8 key relationships that feed into the success of the athlete’s performance. There are 6 categories that influence the expectations which are Performance Accomplishments, Vicarious Experiences, Verbal Persuasion, Imaginal Experiences, Physiological States and Emotional states. The sources of self-efficacy need to be fulfilled so that an athlete can perform to the best of their ability, therefore it is important that sport psychologists know what relationship self-efficacy and athlete performance has.
This essay will discuss how Bandura’s theory, which provides a model with 4 categories, shows the influence self-efficacy has on performance and how to develop and improve an athlete’s self-efficacy.
Main Body –
Bandura’s, 1977 self-efficacy theory identifies four main sources of efficacy expectations and information. The different sources will be established amongst individual athletes and they can be altered in order to achieve maximum self-efficacy.
The four sources are; performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and emotional arousal. Throughout the following text, there will be specific sporting examples for netball, these suggestions can be adapted to different scenarios and sports.
Performance accomplishments are one of the sources which affect an athlete’s self-efficacy. This is because when athletes experience failure multiple times when repeating a skill, they will have reduced self-efficacy. A negative attitude will be formed towards a particular skill so the athlete would avoid completing it if possible.
An example of this is if a netballer (Goal Shooter) is struggling to score they may avoid receiving the ball in a goal scoring position but instead feed it to the Goal Attack to avoid failing again. In order to increase self-efficacy and therefore improve performance, an athlete needs to repeatedly experience success in a skill. This will allow the performer to feel positive about the skill and therefore not choke when completing it. There is current literature that supports the explanation of past accomplishments having a positive influence on successful performance. The study manipulated the participant's beliefs about their confidence when performing leg-strength tasks. The participants either had their beliefs in their ability increased or decreased and when performing the skill against a confederate those who had an increased self-efficacy belief, performed to a higher standard (Weinberg et al., 1979). Therefore, supporting Bandura’s theory that past accomplishments influence self-efficacy and therefore performance. When applying the results of the study and Bandura’s theory to netball, coaches can use isolated practice of shooting, if the athlete becomes successful they will have an increased self-efficacy in a game situation.
Vicarious experiences can be broken down to experiencing through the feelings and actions of another person and their experiences, which allows for the athlete to also go through these feelings. A common way of allowing an athlete to be exposed to vicarious experiences is through modelling, this can be done live by directly watching a model or through a video. By seeing somebody else complete a skill that an individual athlete is struggling with, self-efficacy can be increased because they know that the skill is possible. Thus, making it easier for the athlete to carry out the skill and with more confidence, it allows them to go into the skill feeling confident that they will succeed. In a follow-up study conducted by Feltz et al. (1979), it was found that as well as having a model to show the skill, the modelling would be more successful if the following attributes were also obtained. The athletes in the study were affected by the model themselves, if the model was similar to themselves the athlete would feel more relevant and therefore be more confident in the skill being displayed by the model. In order to be relevant, the model would need to be matched on experience and gender to the athlete.
In order to increase the self-efficacy by using modelling when shooting in netball, the coach should use a model that is matched on skill level with the athlete. If self-efficacy isn’t improving as the coach would like they can also record the model athlete and get the athlete to watch it, the video will allow the coach to slow it down to allow for analysis.
Verbal persuasion is another source that Bandura suggested led to the self-efficacy of
an athlete. Verbal persuasion is used to convince the athlete what they are doing is successful and they are executing the skill well and therefore lead to the belief that they can perform the skill. If the athlete listens to the message it will make them believe in their ability which allows for them to improve performance down to the increase in self-efficacy. Bandura defined verbal persuasion as “a way of strengthening people’s beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed” (Bandura., 1994a). The use of verbal persuasion is concluded to be the weakest way to individually improve self-efficacy and the message can be ignored as the coach’s persuasion may not be a strong message. In order to use verbal persuasion effectively, a coach should use it with athletes who are ego-orientated during a significant point in the game. If an ego-orientated athlete is getting praise such as ‘well done/good shot’ directed to them during a game they will feel like they have got the coaches attention and therefore want to keep performing well. Verbal persuasion is not an enduring category of self-efficacy as the words a coach/peer says can be forgotten in minutes (Bandura, 1977).
To improve the self-efficacy of the Goal Shooter in the scenario a coach will need to continuously praise when the athlete is taking a shot using the following phrases ‘excellent positioning’, ‘brilliant shot’, ‘well played’. Using these phrases will increase the performer's belief and should allow them to feel confident in shooting and therefore not avoid situations but instead improve performance.
The final source that Bandura investigated that leads to ones’ self-efficacy is the Physiological States of the athlete. Bandura, 1977 suggested that arousal will affect how the athlete thinks about the information that they are receiving. This information could either naturally improve an athlete’s self-efficacy or it may have a damaging effect on the self-efficacy and therefore performance. If an athlete has techniques to reduce arousal, such as self-talk or progressive muscle relaxation, then they may find the arousal helps them perform to a higher standard as they see the arousal as their body getting prepared to perform well. However, the negative effect of arousal is that it may cognitively effect the athlete to make them doubt if they are able to perform well, this will therefore decrease self-efficacy.
In order for a coach to direct the arousal so that it facilitates the increase of an athlete’s self-efficacy, they can manipulate the athlete’s cognitions when they become aroused. They can do this by suggesting to the athlete that it is their bodies way of becoming prepared to perform to the best of their ability (Feltz, 1982b). This technique involves the athlete then believing that they will be able to perform well as they know they are ready to.
When applying this to a scenario the coach will need to identify if the player suffers from an increase in cognitive arousal so that they can alter the athlete’s beliefs in themselves.
Conclusion –
Bandura’s research is a good foundation to help coaches to identify aspects of an athlete which may be limiting their self-efficacy. As well as Bandura, there are many other psychologists who have researched if there is a relationship between self-efficacy and the level of performance in an athlete. As the research concludes that there is a relationship it is important coaches are aware of the strategies to improve the self-efficacy. Although athletes will have individual differences, they will all be able to apply strategies in order for improvement. In conclusion, it is important that psychologists explore self-efficacy so that athletes can perform to the best of their ability.
Word Count – 1413
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