Play has been defined by Jeffery Goldstein (2012) as "any activity freely chosen, intrinsically motivated, and personally directed". It can be said that, throughout their childhood, children engage in various forms of play and it is important for play psychologists, such as Piaget and Vygotsky, to conduct research on how these forms of play influence cognitive development. Similarly, it is equally relevant to look to different cultures' values of the importance of play and the evidence in support of these theories and models in answering the question on hand: is play necessary for development.
Denise Boyd and Helen Bee (2015) claim that as children's thinking changes over the early childhood years, so do the forms of play they engage in. During the earlier years of childhood, children are more focused on learning how to accomplish goals. Whereas they become older, "they are proficient at manipulating symbols" and can make more precise judgments about others (Boyd & Bee, 2015). Rubin, Fein and Vandenberg (1983, as cited in Boyd & Bee, 2015) note the importance of monitoring the changes in children's play behaviour as it can give their parents and teachers a clearer insight to their cognitive development. It also allows them to promote the elements of play that aids in developing cognitive, social, creative and emotional growth (Bergen & Fromberg, 2009)
By the age of 2, children should be able to partake in constructive play. This entails of using objects to build things. Piaget maintains that this form of play helps cognitive development as it creates the foundations of a child's understanding of the "rules that govern physical reality" (Boyd & Bee, 2015). For example, through constructing a tower with toy blocks, a child will begin to understand that a tower must be more broad at the bottom than the top in order for it to remain stable. Another form of play that children under the age of two start to engage in is pretend play. Boyd and Bee (2015) have stated that pretend play plays an important role in identifying a child's ability to use symbols. Between 15 to 20 months, the recipient of pretend play is a doll or another person. Pretend play further develops by the ages of 2-3 when children begin to use objects to represent something else, such as using their hand as a comb to brush their hair. This form of play has been regarded as being an important achievement in early childhood as it enables children to practice symbolic thinking (Goldstein, 2012).
When children reach the age of 4, they will have taken part in some form of 'sociodramatic play' (Howes & Matheson, 1992). However, Smith, Cowie and Blades (2015) suggest that children begin to engage in this type of play from 12-15 months. 'Sociodramatic play' has been defined by Goldstein (2012) as children taking on roles in fictional scenarios that have been created by themselves. Howes and Matheson (1992) carried out an experiment to test the development of social pretend play with children's parents, older siblings and peers. They found that 'sociodramatic play' was more prominent in 3-6 year olds. They begin to act out specific roles, such as doctors and patients, and create 'scripts' which they may alter as the game progresses. This helps to develop language as the children interact with one another and also develops their social skills (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015) and their understanding of social rules (Goldstein 2012).
As children become older and reach the ages of 5-6 years, they become more interested in rule-governed play. This type of play includes simple games, such as "Red Rover", and can also be evident in pretend play. For example, when playing house the smallest child may have to take on the role of the baby. Psychologists involved in child development have noticed that younger children also participate in this form of playing but, will not follow the rules for as long as the older children will (Boyd & Bee, 2015). It has also been found that the preference of rule-governed play in children suggests that they are ready for the next stage of cognitive development which is the understanding of social, interpersonal conflicts and how to deal with emotional crises (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015).
Looking at different play theorists; Jean Piaget believed that play is more associated with the process of assimilation rather than accommodation. Assimilation refers to one's understanding of an experience in terms of the stage of cognitive development they are at and their way of thinking. Accommodation, on the other hand, occurs when one's way of thinking, understanding or behaviour changes in response to facing new events or stimuli (Feldman, 2014). When taking note of his daughter's, Jacqueline, behaviours, he found that play is merely children acting out behaviours or schemata that were already well established in them , such as sleeping. He argued that play did not promote cognitive development but instead it reinforced already existing skills. It has also been suggested by Piaget that play can give children a sense of confidence (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015).
In contrast to Piaget's beliefs on play in relation to cognitive development, Lev Vygotsky viewed play as "the leading source of development" during the early childhood years. He claimed that through pretending to play with objects, the child is entering the "world of ideas". This "world of ideas", he explains, enhances cognitive development as it allows the child to use their imagination by separating the meaning of an object from the object itself, such as a child pretending that a stick is a horse (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015). However, Vygotsky's work has been criticised by many as they argue that his work in this area of psychology should not be considered a theory and that his claim that play is fundamental for development was used to "explore the relationship between language and representational thought" (Lambert 2000). Therefore, it is questionable whether or not Vygotsky's research can be relied upon in determining if play is necessary for development.
Following on from the different theories on play, how different cultures or societies view the importance of play is another key element in deciding if play is necessary for development. Gaskins et al. (2006, as cited in Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015) outlined how different societies may value play. Firstly, there is culturally curtailed play where play is not prioritised. Parents in these societies that children will become more cognitively developed by observing and imitating. Culturally accepted play is when parents approve of play but do not actively encourage it. Goldstein (2012) suggests that due to various factors, such as changes in the family home or more focus on education, children receive less encouragement to play in comparison to previous generations. However, culturally cultivated play believes that play is necessary for cognitive development and parents highly recommend play to their children. This is mainly seen in more socially and economically advanced societies (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015).
Smith (2010, as cited in Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015) furthered these models of play by contrasting them with regards to the importance of play in development). The 'epiphenomenal' model suggests that play is merely a way in which to develop other skills such social skills. In another model, it has been maintained that play is a way in which cognitive skills may develop but it is not necessary; cognitive development can also take play through work and observation. This is known as the 'equifinality' model. Western cultures are heavily in favour of the 'essential' model, also known as 'play ethos. While 'play ethos' suggests that play is necessary for cognitive development, there is a lack of empirical evidence supporting it. Smith found that the 'equifinality' model was the most supported model. Lillard et al. (2013), concurred that the 'essential' model cannot be relied upon due to the lack of supporting evidence.
To conclude, it is almost undisputed that play has a positive of effect on children. It has emotional benefits, such as reducing fear or anxiety, develops their social skills as they interact with one another and it even has physical benefits by keeping them fit and healthy (Goldstein, 2012). However, with respect to necessity of play for development, there is a lack of empirical evidence to conclude that play has an essential role (Lillard, 2013). Many psychologists, such as Piaget (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015), also failed to find that play is absolutely necessary for children's development. Nonetheless, they did note that play has an important role during the early childhood years for the enhancement of many other important skills (Goldstein, 2012; Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015).