The Panama Canal, located on the Panama isthmus in Central America between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, was first established in 1914 after a ten year construction period. The canal is approximately 48 miles long and is an artificial waterway that allows ships to cross between the oceans without having to go around South America. The primary incentive for the construction of the canal is to make shipping routes easier, safer, and quicker; although constructed in 1914, plans for an artificial canal in Panama had existed as far back as the 18th century. However, due to limitations in technology and several political hurdles, such as Panama belonging to Colombia before 1903, construction of the canal was delayed until Panama officially seceded from Colombia, formerly known as Gran Colombia, and the United States pledged support of the canal's construction. The canal was ultimately completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, and the operation of the canal was maintained by United States authorities until the authority of the canal was transferred to the Panamanian government in 1999.
Before the canal, ships attempting to cross from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean had to sail around the southern tip of South America, known as the Strait of Magellan. This route was often treacherous and could introduce months of extra travel time. The location of the canal in Panama made sense because it is the thinnest amount of land separating the two oceans, at only 48 miles long from end to end. Initial construction of a canal in the area was initiated by the French, with authorization from Colombian authorities who controlled Panama during this time. French attempts to build the canal, however, were unsuccessful; several engineering limitations and numerous deaths during the construction among workers prevented the project from being completed.
Although France had been the most recent government to propose a canal with the Gran Colombian authorities before the United States' construction, the United States had previously attempted to negotiate a canal with Gran Colombia in the mid-nineteenth. However, this project had been rejected by Gran Colombia over fears that the United States would have too strong a presence in Central America. The United States at the time was undergoing rapid expansion, so there were fears by the Gran Colombia government that a partnership with the United States would eventually lead to U.S. imposition and perhaps annexation.
By the turn of the nineteenth century, however, Gran Colombia was losing influence in Panama, and there were separatist movements among the Panamanian locals that sought independence. The separatists also believed that cooperating with the United States in the construction of a canal would bring in much needed economic growth if Panama was to be successful following secession from Gran Colombia. Part of the negotiated terms between the Panama separatists and the United States included that operation of the canal would remain neutral, and these terms were accepted.
Hostilities and revolution by the Panama separatists broke out in late 1903 when Gran Colombia ordered the arrest of several Panamanian officials and ordered several troops into the area. However, resisting the revolution was short-lived, as Gran Colombia was facing other separatist movements in regions such as Bogota. The short-lived but successful Panamanian revolution resulted in the dissolution of Gran Colombia into Colombia, and Panama was free to renegotiate a possible construction of a canal on its terms. The United States was the first country to recognize Panama's newly established independence officially.
The actual construction of the canal following Panama's independence was still a monumental undertaking, and several engineers theorized the development of the project. In total, ships would need to be transported a total of fifty miles. The eventual construction involved building a series of artificial lakes, a series of locks and lifts that would help transport ships, and taking advantage of natural rivers and harbors.
In preparation for eventual construction of the canal, the Chagres River that flows through Panama was dammed, with the runoff creating Gatun Lake, a man-made lake that became essential for the canal's operation. Numerous channels were also formed to make the canal possible, along with a series of locks that function to lift ships to the appropriate level, as Gatun Lake is above sea level. A section of the Continental Divide in Panama, a region of mountains and hills, also had to be cut through to make access across the isthmus possible. Thus, there were several engineering challenges to tackle throughout the process: artificial waterways had to be constructed along with making use of natural waterways such as the Chagres River, so that ships could sail; a series of locks had to be installed in order to lift various ships to the appropriate level, as the ships would be traveling above sea level; and large sections of land had to be cut away in order to allow for the passage of ships. At the same time, sizes had to be considered, as ships could only pass through if the various passages were wide enough.
According to David McCullough's The Path Between the Seas, from a naval vessel's perspective, the eventual journey through the Panama Canal from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean would be as follows: first, the ship would approach the canal from a natural harbor known as Limon Bay, located on the eastern shore. The entrance to the canal itself begins with a two-mile-long route through an artificial channel that was created as part of the initial construction project. From here, a series of locks that essentially hoist the ship along a track continues the process, for another mile and a half. The purpose of the locks is to elevate the ship to the level of Gatun Lake, which is above sea level. The lake then carries vessels for over fourteen miles to the Chagres River, which continues the journey. An artificial waterway cut through the mountains allows passage through the continental divide, and then a series of locks begin the descent toward the Pacific Ocean. Another artificial lake, the Miraflores Lake, continues to carry vessels westward, along with another series of locks, and finally, the vessel will exit in a harbor facing the Pacific Ocean, near Panama City.
The scope of the entire construction project was massive. Due to the difficulties in the terrain, there was a significant loss of life. The construction involved two groups of workers that unfortunately, in what could retroactively be identified as systemic racism, were divided by ethnicity: American workers from industrial areas such as Pittsburgh were contracted for labor, as were many natives from neighboring countries throughout the Caribbean, and these groups were paid differently for their efforts as well as segregated during labor efforts. Spaniards were also contracted to perform some of the labor, and they were locally considered to be semi-white, which increased racial tensions during the construction of the project when they found they were denied rights to the same lodging and restaurants as American or other European counterparts. Several of these marginalized groups organized strikes that delayed certain parts of the construction project, although these strikes were ultimately settled and did not derail the project entirely.
The hostile work conditions included threats of malaria and other diseases, which were attracted to the standing water that was created when the artificial Gatun and Miraflores lakes were formed. However, one of the problems that had faced French efforts to dig the canal, landslides, was mitigated in part due to a decision to truck away from the standing piles of dirt, rather than leave them nearby, as the French had done. In total, there were approximately 27,000 casualties, which is a staggering metric by any modern construction standard. Nevertheless, despite the harsh working conditions and the loss of life, the construction of the canal was viewed favorably by the vast majority of Panamanians, in part due to the United States support of separatist movements that were successful in declaring independence from Gran Colombia.
The motivation of the United States in building the canal was not only a way to improve shipping routes and providing safer passage; in the early nineteenth century, the United States was also beginning to exert its influence on a global scale, including throughout much of the North American continent. The Panama Canal was, therefore, an American project, and it signified American industry and might. The canal allowed the growing United States navy more flexibility in the amount of territory it could easily access, and it represented the spread of United States influence over the Americas. The advantage for Panama was that it received both direct and indirect funding: not only was the newly founded Panamanian government paid for the land, as the United States would remain in control of the canal for the foreseeable future (which lasted until 1999), but the local economy was given a significant boost by the thousands of workers who were staying in Panama for an extended amount of time. Additionally, Panama benefitted from global publicity surrounding the project, as there was heightened media interest over the canal's construction, and it placed Panama at one of the newest centers of commerce and trade. While some loyalists to the old regime may not have seen the canal's construction as favorable, with the same concerns that Gran Colombia had regarding potential American imperialism, the majority of locals were favorable toward both the canal's construction and American involvement at the time the canal was built.
Over time, however, there was increasing resentment toward American control of the Panama Canal, and there was also a reduction in the value of operating the canal for the United States. Although Panama had benefitted from the initial investment by the United States in constructing and operating the canal, the fact remained that a significant amount of Panamanian territory was still under the control of another government. At the same time, however, the need to maintain control of the canal lessened over time, as other technologies, particularly in railroads, mitigated the need to use the shipping ports; for instance, manufacturers and farmers in the American northeast who were shipping goods to Asia soon found it easier to transport these goods across the United States via railroad to western harbors in Seattle and San Diego, and then send them overseas from there. This railroad infrastructure was not well-defined when the Panama Canal was first created, but they soon became reliable a few generations later. Along with the growing resentment among Panamanian locals, these issues eventually led to a treaty between the Panamanian and United States governments, signed in 1977, that guaranteed control and operations of the canal would turn over to Panama by the end of the century. On December 31, 1999, this agreement was finalized, and the canal was turned over to Panama, which has operated and controlled the canal ever since.