Music, as a literary device, has continually fused an array of styles from different cultures. This cultural fusion in music is an attempt to portray sensual themes that are often avoided or considered taboo in contemporary society. One of these themes, exoticism, is a musical approach espoused by Western composers, such as Georges Bizet and Benjamin Britten, to depict issues that were alien and repulsive to their audience. Exoticism is defined as the incorporation of elements that are foreign to the native’s music and theatre (Gentile 02/26/18). Ralph Locke, meanwhile, proposed a broader definition that captures the five essential characteristics of exotic works. Locke’s definition identifies exoticism as a means of musically depicting a real place, people, or culture that is deemed different from its equivalent in the home country. The place evoked bears little resemblance to the native state, and the difference emotionally challenges the complacency of the listener. The contrast of the evoked places may be either hidden or readily apparent, and the performance of the work transcends time and cultures (Locke 47). Locke’s wide-ranging definition creates a spectrum of exoticism, from pure exoticism to transcultural composition. The latter reflects a hybrid of alien and Western styles, yet it remains on the spectrum of exoticism as an act of “othering,” although less explicit than pure exoticism (Gentile 02/26/18). The aim of this paper is to identify the exotic elements and spectrum in Georges Bizet’s Carmen and to analyze the gamelan-based inspiration in Benjamin Britten’s Death in Venice while determining where both pieces lie on the spectrum of exoticism.
Bizet’s Carmen is a composition that, on the exoticism spectrum, is designated as pure exoticism. In the opera, Carmen is a female gypsy smuggler who becomes entangled in a love triangle that leads to her murder. As a character, she is a representation of the gypsy lifestyle that was stereotyped by the French middle class (Frisch 170). Her promiscuity, criminality, and adventurous spirit was something foreign to French middle-class women, who were represented by the more refined and reserved Micaela.
The exotic elements are portrayed not only through the characterization, but also through the musico-dramatic approach of the opera (Frisch 171). In one sense, the opera appears to be Western because spoken dialogue is employed in the musical numbers. The use of such instruments as castanets and tambourines does, however, introduce the gypsy culture into the opera. This use of foreign items to replace the more distinct and refined Western instruments is incontrovertible evidence of the presence of exoticism in the play. The Spanish-styled dances are also a strong indication of the use of gypsy culture, as are the melodies and rhythms deployed. The parts played by Micaela are, however, characterized by the use of tuneful music that conforms to the operatic conventions of the time.
The play, essentially, falls on the “pure” end of the exoticism spectrum, owing to its unique arrangement. It introduces two distinct social settings that show a conflict and definite separation between the native and foreign cultures. For instance, in a duet-style performance, Carmen converses with Don Jose. The foreign elements are clearly seen in Carmen’s performance, which is simple and characterized by repetition. Her part involves a seductive dance and the use of the foreign castanet. In response, Don Jose takes the native approach, using a passionate aria (Frisch 171). His part is lyrically broad, uses chromatic harmony, and has a steady rhythm, all of which are key hallmarks of Western music. Bizet accomplishes his “othering” through the use of Spanish music, which is non-diegetic, for Carmen, and the diegetic French ballad style for the native Don Jose (Gentile 03/05/18). The opera does not attempt to interbreed the native and foreign cultures; instead, it provides a discrete segregation.
Death in Venice is an opera by Benjamin Britten that takes inspiration from gamelan to depict the then-taboo theme of homosexuality in Western culture. Britten and his homosexual lover, Pears, were social misfits in their own time, and the work provided them with an opportunity to exercise their freedom and views. Their relationship was not only socially unacceptable, it was considered a disorder in the eyes of medical science (Michaels 03/01/18). For this reason, the presence of such a relationship in Death in Venice alludes to an exotic style. In the opera, Gustav Aschenbach develops an uncontrollable passion for a Polish boy named Tadzio while visiting Venice. Although his love for Tadzio is socially forbidden, Gustav remains obsessed with the boy and perishes from an epidemic because he could not bring himself to leave Tadzio and, as a consequence, the disaster-stricken Venice (Taruskin 255).
Britten incorporates elements of Balinese gamelan music to describe the character of Tadzio, who does not sing but dances to gamelan music against a backdrop decorated with oriental colors. In the opera, Britten attaches this gamelan music to Tadzio by only playing it in scenes where the young boy is present. Gustav’s fantasies and desire for Tadzio are represented by the gamelan sound (Michaels 03/01/18); thus, Tadzio’s character is othered because the gamelan is all we have to see and understand who he is. The exotic scenery and dances are a reflection of the remoteness existing between Gustav and Tadzio (Gentile 03/05/18). The gamelan represents the distance between the two characters; the audience sees only the other character’s desire for Tadzio, who is then viewed as simply a character who is being desired by the other character.
Death in Venice, on the exoticism spectrum, can easily be classified as a transcultural composition. The Balinese dance scenes and accompanying music are intended to segregate Tadzio from the other characters in the opera. While under the umbrella of exoticism, transcultural composing tends to be less explicit in its “othering” compared to pure exoticism; essentially, in transcultural composing, the creator is deploying a hybrid of styles that attempts to marry the native and foreign cultures (Michaels 02/20/18). For this reason, the representation of the “other” in the play is introduced in the theme of Gustav’s homosexual attraction rather than through the musical approach.
In comparison, Bizet’s approach to defining the “other” in Carmen is more explicit. Bizet uses Spanish music, instruments, and characters for this purpose, a stylistic difference that announces the introduction of foreign culture into the play. The clear distinction between foreign and native in Bizet’s opera labels it as pure exoticism. For Britten, however, the exotic spectrum is defined by the theme and not the music. In his opera, he fuses the gamelan and western styles, using them to further his themes. Britten does not separate the thematic expression of the two cultures; rather, he mixes them to produce a single thematic narrative.
Although both pieces lie on the exotic spectrum, Georges Bizet’s opera, Carmen, is a work of pure exoticism, while Death in Venice by Benjamin Britten is a transcultural composition. Bizet uses instruments, musical rhythm, characterization, and Spanish music to portray the “other” in his opera. Britten, meanwhile, only uses the theme to show the “other” while fusing Western and gamelan musical styles to advance his work. Both operas are exotic despite their varying spectrums, because they have transcended time and culture to serve as subjects of contemporary debates.