The Benefits of Diverse Methods in Psychological Research
Psychology is a scientific field that explores the complexities of human understandings and this is constantly evolving and far from straightforward (Turner, 2015). Meeting the demands of this type of research requires a multi-faceted approach (Frost, 2011). For this reason, psychologists draw upon various types of quantitative and qualitative research methods to develop and test theories that provide explanations for mental processes and what occurs in social contexts. This paper will evaluate the claim that a diverse range of methods benefits research into people’s perceptions of themselves and their social environments and it will explain the value of utilizing different methods in arriving at evidence-based conclusions, using examples of existing studies to support this claim.
Research methods that generate quantitative evidence such as surveys and closed questionnaires allow psychologists to study differences in perceptions and understandings on a large scale. It can also reveal patterns and trends that, depending on the sampling, can be generalized as representative of a group of people or population (Redman, 2012). Surveys are typically comprised of closed questions or the option to select from a limited number of answers on a scale and they can be completed individually or take the form of an interview (Redman, 2012). Examples of this come from studies that measured self-esteem using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), which is a ten-item closed questionnaire (Mahendran, 2017). A meta-analysis by Trzeniewski et. al (2003) cited in Mahendran (2015, pp. 176-177) examined RSES scores from 50 studies to determine if self-esteem remained consistent throughout people’s lifetimes or was affected by age. Their findings showed lower RSES scores during childhood and adolescence, then an upward trajectory to its highest levels between the ages of 30 and 48, with a decline that started in middle-age and continued into old age. Another study by Schmitt and Alik (2005) cited in Mahendran (2015, p.177) compared the RSES scores from 16,998 people from 53 countries and found that people from Japan and Eastern Europe had a lower mean than people from the United States and Western Europe. This indicated the likely influence of collectivist and individualistic cultural values on self-esteem. The above studies, through the use of surveys, revealed how age and culture can influence people’s perceptions of themselves. The survey method can also challenge accepted assumptions as to what is considered normal or abnormal behavior (Bowes-Catton, 2015). This is seen in the Kinsey Reports which resulted from Alfred Kinsey and his team interviewing more than 11,000 people using a standard questionnaire (Bowes-Catton, 2015). Kinsey’s research (1948; 1953) cited in Bowes-Catton (2015, p. 202) opposed the accepted understanding that homosexuality was a rare occurrence as his research showed that close to half of the 5300 men interviewed had engaged in both heterosexual and homosexual activity. Some of the drawbacks of survey research is that participants may not always be truthful or there may be issues with the sampling, in that it does not accurately represent a group or population (Redman, 2012). Additionally, surveys do not reveal how or why understandings occur, but only describe what is. This is one of the reasons why psychological research does not rely on a singular method and instead utilizes a range of methods in order to confirm or dispute theories and findings. Despite the limitations, surveys are of great value in measuring and quantifying something as complex and abstract as understandings and can shed light on inaccurate assumptions, furthermore, it is a practical way to collect large amounts of information, from which estimations and generalizations can be made (Redman, 2012).
To gain insight into not only what people understand but how and when it occurs, psychologists conduct laboratory experiments. This type of experiment takes place in a controlled setting, either a laboratory or dedicated space where the researchers maintain a standardized procedure with control over dependent and independent variables (Hewson, 2017a). This method is useful in testing and developing theories and inferring correlations or cause-effect relationships (Hewson, 2017b). Numerous studies in developmental psychology have focused on determining when children develop the theory of mind ability. That is, the understanding that others may have different beliefs, feelings, and knowledge (Hewson, 2015). A well-known experiment that has been used many times is the Sally-Anne task which tests children’s ability to understand that others may have false beliefs (Hewson, 2015). This task involves two puppets, Sally and Anne. Sally places a marble in a box and leaves the room, then Anne takes the marble and places it in another box before Sally returns. The children are then asked where Sally will look for her marble. Studies have shown that children under 4 consistently answer the question incorrectly whereas children aged 5 and older give the correct answer the majority of the time (Hewson, 2015). The results indicate a positive correlation between age and the development of more sophisticated cognitive abilities (Hewson, 2015). Psychologists, however, do not base conclusions solely on one kind of experiment and in this field of inquiry, other types of tests in language ability and visual perception have been used to determine if the findings can be supported (Hewson, 2015). Another example of this method in use comes from research on the placebo effect. This is when patients believe they are receiving medication and experience improvement even though they are being given a non-medical substance such as a sugar pill (Turner, 2017a). Goldacre (n.d.) cited in Turner (2017b) refers to a study in which various types of placebo treatments were given to patients with gastric ulcers. Remarkably, increasing the dosage of two sugar pills to four sugar pills a day speeded the recovery period and, in some cases, the ulcers disappeared. Experiments of this type have been replicated time and again with the same results that demonstrate the power of belief in treatment outcomes (Goldacre, n.d. cited in Turner, 2017b). Laboratory experiments enable scientists to assess cause-effect relationships, identify correlations (Hewson, 2017a) and observe the processes and variables that influence understandings. For practical reasons, experiments often cannot be conducted on a large scale and some experiments may bear little resemblance to real world application (Turner, 2017c). Nevertheless, they offer reliable and objective evidence that can strongly reinforce a theory or vice versa. Moreover, they can be replicated as often as needed.
Although controlled laboratory experiments are useful to psychologists investigating a specific process (Turner, 2017d), when real-life context is needed, observation in field research is often utilized. The advantage of this method is its ecological validity, that is, the degree to which it is representative of real-life situations and can be applied (Turner, 2017e). This type of research takes place in real-world settings, such as in a school, office, or supermarket and allows scientists to observe and analyze responses and social interaction as they naturally occur, and this can be a starting point for further research. An example of this comes from Cherry’s study on various self-help groups centered around debilitating illnesses. Cherry (2012) cited in Cherry and Barker (2015, pp. 255-256) observed the interactions of individuals in the groups and noted that, contrary to expectations, there was little said about illness itself. Instead, there was a great deal of small talk and entertaining activities. Based on individual interviews, Cherry was aware that each person faced health-related difficulties, but that commonality was not the focus. The understanding of the impact of illness and life’s uncertainties were implicitly recognized and collectively experienced. This shared understanding bonded the group and cultivated an environment that emphasized the joys of connecting to others. Cherry’s findings have real-world applications for those coping with debilitating illnesses. In another study, Roger Ulrich (1983) cited in Stevens (2015, pp. 341-342) discovered the effect of nature on hospital patients’ length of stay and recovery. He determined that patients with a view of nature versus a brick wall recovered more quickly and needed less pain medication. Although the human preference for natural environments was nothing new, psychologists had done little to study how the emotional response to nature could impact health and well-being (Stevens, 2015). Ulrich’s observations articulated a process, which perhaps the patients themselves were unaware of and his findings have been influential to health-care. An issue with this method is that if people do not know they under observation, they are not able to consent to participating and this can raise ethical issues (Barker, 2017). However, it provides insight
To get more comprehensive information or an individual perspective, psychologists obtain qualitative evidence by analyzing case studies. This can involve several methods such as unstructured interviews, observation, document analysis, et cetera (Stevens, 2017a). The in-depth analysis of case studies reveals underlying issues that inform and influence understandings and can also provide more detailed explanations and nuance which are not apparent in quantitative evidence (Stevens, 2017a). In the 1970s, Gottman and his colleagues carried out longitudinal case studies of couples to identify the aspects of a happy, successful relationship and vice versa (Buehlman, et al. 1992). This was done by first conducting in-depth interviews with open-ended questions regarding the couple’s history. Next, the couple was observed discussing areas of conflict in the relationship while physiological measurements were taken. Finally, they were contacted after three years and asked to complete questionnaires and re-interviewed on the state of their marriage. Interestingly, when comparing the findings from the beginning of the study and the result at its conclusion, the most accurate predictor of the relationship’s future was the oral history interview (Buehlman, 1992). The researchers discovered that the manner in which a couple related their past history, their interaction with each other throughout the interview and their views toward conflict could predict with a high level of accuracy if the relationship would last (Buehlman, 1992). The combined methods of interviews and observation enabled Gottman to identify four warning signs of a troubled relationship as well as the ‘magic ratio’ for healthy ones (Barker, 2015). Case studies can be time-consuming, logistically impractical and each has unique factors that would make it next to impossible to reproduce, therefore the findings cannot be generalized (Stevens, 2017a). However, they offer detailed qualitative evidence, can open new lines of inquiry (Stevens, 2017a) and illuminate the subjective nature of human understandings and this is highly beneficial to psychological research.
On balance, there is no singular perfect method of research as each have benefits but are not without flaws. To balance this, the process of psychological research into perceptions, beliefs and understandings looks to a wide range of methods from which evidence, theories and conclusions are derived. Depending on the research, not all methods are utilized as some studies may focus on the phenomenon itself others may be more concerned with developing theories to explain why. However, each method has value in revealing to psychologists what people understand, how these understanding can occur and finally why they do. A diversity of research methods can confirm and validate theories and conclusions.