At first look, engineering and philosophy do not seem to have much in common. However, a closer inspection will reveal a much-needed relationship for the proper development of engineering and technology. This chapter presents a summary of the principles of philosophy and the philosophy of technology in an accessible way for engineers. The objective is to inform engineers of the usually imperceptible, but undeniable significance of understanding philosophical principles in technology and technological development. The issues discussed here include definitions, relationships among different aspects, parts, and systems, nature of technological knowledge, laws of engineering design, society, nature and technology, and ethics. An attempt to apply the concepts presented to the emerging electric energy industry is also presented.
Although engineering/technology seems to have a life of its own, a reflection on how it develops and affects human life is very important for the working engineer. The natural tool to assist in this consideration is the discipline of philosophy. When one combines these two topics, one has the relatively young subject of the philosophy of technology. However, as engineering projects become increasingly complex, there is a greater need for a careful and exhaustive reflection of the design, manufacturing, and operation processes.
The highly specialized engineering fields have produced a significant fragmentation of engineering knowledge and have caused distancing of engineers from the overall impact of projects within society. This is one of the reasons why a profound reflection of these issues is not just an academic exercise, but a necessary component for promoting the positive impact of technology. Constructive results come from specialization, also.
This chapter reviews these issues and compiles them concisely and understandably to encourage both engineers and engineering students to investigate the issues with advanced reading further.
Principles of Philosophy Applied to Engineering and Technology
A – What is Philosophy?
Philosophy is the discipline that targets at the systematic consideration on all aspects, modes, and nature of reality. In philosophy, one attempts to gain insight into the nature of life and the relationship of all elements of a particular activity or field of development.
B. Functions of Philosophy?
Philosophy consists of three fundamental functions: the analytical, the critical, and the directive. The analytical function can be applied by asking questions such as “what do you mean when you say . . . ?” Thus, this feature helps to clarify concepts and purposes and assist engineers to establish more objective goals and claims. Another feature of philosophy is the critical role. By using the analytical function one can make value judgments. Thus, performing the essential function of philosophy involves value judgments that are founded upon clear understanding obtained from analytical activities. The directive function allows the engineer to make corrections and direct the use of technology based on the value judgments made with the critical function.
Engineers can be directed by the values from the critical process during the design development. In fact, engineers do this all the time (whether they admit it or not). Values (even unarticulated ones) always guide the design process. The role of philosophical reflection is to bring those names and articulate those values so that they can be discussed and debated in the design process. It can be problematic to have assumptions that are neither articulated nor debated but rather assumed and unspoken.
Although engineers ask similar questions without referring to philosophy, it can be helpful to remind them of the need and importance of their systematic application to the engineering design process, development, and implementation.
C. Fields of Philosophy
Within the old discipline of philosophy several relevant areas can be distinguished:
Ontology – deals with what exists and the essence of things. It can also be seen as human-imposed structures for physical reality and the world of ideas. For example: what makes technology different from natural uses? When do we call something technological or artificial, and when do we call it natural?
Epistemology – focuses on the nature of knowledge. That is: How do we know what we know? Even if one doesn’t know it, he/she is an epistemologist. For example: what do we mean when we say we know that energy is lost when electricity flows over metallic conductors?
Methodology – has to do with the ways, means and methods with which tasks and goals can be achieved.
Metaphysics – deals with the vision of reality, related to one’s worldview. It has to do with purposes and meaning. Although it is not necessarily related to religion, it is certainly related to faith and core principles and beliefs.
Ethics and Aesthetics – deals with values and logical analyses of ethical dilemmas.
D. What is Philosophy of Technology?
Because philosophy of technology is a relatively undeveloped discipline, and there are no schools in philosophy of technology, so to speak, different perspectives and issues are being debated with no accepted definition. Philosophy of technology is like a mosaic of ideas and suggestions, but that should not minimize its relevance to engineering and technological developments [1].
What then, should be the proper term? Philosophy about Technology, Humanities Philosophy of Technology, or Engineering Philosophy of Technology? Mitcham [2] has identified four ways to conceptualize technology: as objects, as knowledge, as actions, and as volition. This division roughly matches with traditional philosophical domains (objects relate to ontology, knowledge refers to epistemology, actions to methodology, and preference with – ethics and –aesthetics).
Developing a proper perspective of technology and the philosophical principles behind the philosophy of technology is very important for engineers as they can better understand and characterize the field they work more precisely and to help them to act more consciously and responsibly [1].
An attempt to illustrate the relationship between the engineering design process and the philosophical process is shown in Figure 1 and its application to Smart Grids. Philosophical questions can help the engineer to better determine concepts, specifications, and practical implementation of the projects. In Figure 2 the relationship of the engineering process and the design factors could be better appreciated via the fifteen fundamental functions and aspects of the product[3].
At this point, it is essential to make some differentiation among natural objects, technological instruments, tools, artifacts, systems, functions and physical properties in engineering systems.
In general, one can say that technological products and systems have a dual nature: physical and functional. The designer seeks a physical nature that fits the functional nature and the relationship between the physical and functional is never fully predefined. This is why creativity plays a role both in the design and utilization of the product.
An alternative way of differentiating between different kinds of natures and functions of objects is shown in Table I [3].
This differentiation can be helpful for understanding the nature of engineering products and systems and the relation between the different aspects of their functions. For instance, one can ask the question, what aspect ‘qualifies’ the artifact in the sense that it indicates its main purpose? Is a building primarily an object that is aesthetically or socially qualified? That can make quite a difference in the outcome of the design process.
Another concept associated with these aspects or dimensions is the differentiation of subject and object functions of an engineering product. Each product can serve as an object or subject in its aspects. For example, a power system’s generator may serve as an object in the economic and physical issues, but it may not serve as a subject in the economic perspective because it cannot buy or sell itself. This issue, too, can have practical implications. The fact that an animal as a living being is a subject in the biotic aspect, whereas a machine can only be an object in that sense, may have differences in the way we treat both. One could claim that an animal needs care, while a machine needs maintenance. This, too, can be much more than a matter of terminology.
If one focuses on the significant changes experienced by humanity in the last two centuries, the industrial revolution and the internet are certainly to be named. As for the industrial revolution, it was not a smooth process. The changes in the economy meant a new paradigm in the vector of production. Slavery became unnecessary and even harmful since a new workforce was needed to operate the machines, as well as a new consumer market, was required to be created and expanded. Not only slavery was affected but also the manufacturers. They suddenly were obliged to work under a proprietor of a plant. This feature was fuel to modern capitalism, creating opportunities to new areas of economics and philosophy thinking. In particular, Karl Marx devoted his thoughts to this issue, arguing that capitalism was a consequence of the industrial revolution rather than its cause [4]. This is an open topic since the commerce of England (and its growing demand in India, Africa, and North America) has undoubtedly played a role in this process. It is worthy to mention some philosophical aspects related to this revolution:
• Karl Marx worked on the worker's conditions and how capitalism tends to create social tensions that eventually may create opportunities for another economic concept, the socialism.
• Adam Smith, on the other hand, on “Wealth of Nations,” emphasizes the positive aspects of the capitalism, with particular attention on how good the individualism may be for society.
The first consequence of the industrial revolution was the migration from rural to urban areas, inflating the urban population. Besides, the labor conditions were degrading, with low salaries and a high working load of weekly hours. This social condition was a reason for riots and protests, with special mention to the luddit movement, which destroyed machines and invaded factories. Eventually, the creation of Unions allowed workers to organize themselves and place their demands, ending the violent protests, replaced by strikes and bilateral negotiations. The world has had a tremendous improvement in the quality of life as a consequence of the industrial revolution. It is undoubtedly true to say that people nowadays live more comfortably than any king the middle age, even though embarrassing inequalities are still present.
The internet was a faster, and possibly, more devastating process. The way it changed habits and labor conditions is yet to be studied. Unlike the industrial revolution, the internet faced no barrier. Ironically, the cradle of the internet is somehow linked to smart grids basic principles, since the internet was conceived as a robust and flawless communication network for chaotic conditions so that infrastructure could be minimally preserved. Such research took place during the decade of 1960, but only in the decade of 1980 it became known, with a spectacular widespread in the 1990´s. The Internet has dramatically changed the commerce, enabling people to trade in a fast and reliable way in different countries from their home. The industries of music and communication have also changed, since the voice service became available, lowering the cost of telephone calls.
The philosophy of internet accessibility is also a topic of discussion since the instantaneous access to information is changing habits and social interactions, raising concerns about the way children should be exposed to the internet. Even the writing has experienced some changes, as a consequence of the speedy conversations by instant messages. Privacy is also an issue because it is a topic of particular appeal for social researchers since many people give up on their privacy by voluntarily placing their family habits, trips, parties, etc. is not safe and private internet-based applications.
However, few aspects have had such a significant impact as information. In this sense, not only the formal information, traditionally broadcasted by public and private TV channels, magazines, newspapers, and radio. The internet enabled a new class of information, provided by bloggers, who may create their space to spread information, and more importantly, their opinion about it. This change is, indeed, a democratization of the information tools, even though the regulation about privacy and honor protection still need to be discussed in so many countries.
The benefits of the internet, however, are undeniable. The world is certainly a better place after the advent of the internet, since people may take advantage of remotely visiting museums, planning trips, defining routes and using so many applications of their interest.
Naming the advantages of both the industrial revolution and the internet one can place the discussion of smart grids on a philosophical level. Are they indispensable? Which main interests will they be serving? Recalling that the concept of smart grids embraces a transversal integration of different areas of knowledge, like information technology, distribution system features, converters and plug-in electric vehicles, one should ask about the necessity and socio-economical impacts of smart grids.
A discussion about smart grids may be posed at first in two different scenarios: rural areas, where microgrids may provide electricity to villages and small farmers. This scenario is certainly appealing in areas with no electricity, so the power quality may be a secondary point of concern. Ethical issues also arise when dealing with this kind of microgrids, since poor communities may not afford the high costs associated with the necessary equipment to install a microgrid. Note the terminology in this case, since this kind of grid may not demand a high degree of telecommunication.
Microgrids may become part of existing smart grids, though, when urban grids are the focus. In this case, a microgrid may work connected to the main grid, or in emergency conditions, it may operate in islanded mode. In this case, a high degree of renewable generation and an efficient telecommunication structure must be available. Advanced techniques such as probabilistic voltage stability assessment can then be applied [5-6].
The point of concern, however, lies in the fact that smart grids may not be essential and priority for all society. This is because urban distribution systems usually present high-reliability indices. For some communities around the world, smart grids are not an urgent issue and should not be placed as essential. Thus, why proposing smart grids? At first glance, distribution systems are reliable and implementing smart grids implies high costs.
Smart grids may be indeed extremely appealing, since they may change some paradigms, as pointed out next:
• Reliability tends to increase, because local sources may supply the system in emergency conditions, mitigating load shedding or even providing the total system load.
• Consumers may become producers. Because of the intermittency of renewable generation, this role may change according to the hour of the day. This possibility raises the terminology “prosumers” to name people that may act as consumers or producers in different time instants of the day.
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles enable people to have a less-polluting transportation mean.
• Renewable generation sources are also free carbon emission, thus inserting clean energy generation into the energetic matrix.
On the other hand, one should note that equipment associated with telecommunication and system control may become a point of difficult to install smart grids. The opposition may also come from utilities since they could face local renewable generation as a profit reduction. This condition, indeed, may occur and the consumer must feel attracted to embrace the idea of the smart grid. Utilities, however, have their place in this scenario, because utilities must be responsible for ensuring global reliability and stability to the system, especially when the microgrid is connected to the main grid and the renewable sources are not enough to supply its total load. The economic evaluation of a future smart electricity market plays a vital role in this process, which is discussed next.
An Economic Market Model for the Evaluation of Sustainable Social Policies based on Smart Grid Technologies
The emergence of the concept of Smart Grids appears as a disruptive innovation to address many sensitive issues in modern society. Distributed generation introduces renewable energy sources (wind, solar, etc.) into the energy matrix, contributing to the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It can also be considered a powerful resource in promoting the sector's sustainability, as well as providing a new scenario for means of transportation through the possible intensive use of electric and hybrid vehicles. Regions around the world have a high incidence of sunshine and/or wind power, hence the relevance of investigating the technical, economic, regulatory, and social aspects of the integration of renewable sources in the power system of any country, in the current context of Smart Grids. This new concept of the network can present improvements to the local and global electrical system, allowing better indices of reliability in terms of availability, frequency and voltage levels.
Studies and research in the area of intelligent electrical networks (Smart Grids) do have a multidisciplinary characteristic and require an integrated view of the various scientific, technological, economic, social, environmental, security aspects of supply and operation of a new producer-consumer electricity market through an infrastructure of conductors of a power system with intense automation and insertion of multiple sources of energies (renewable or not).
Although Smart Grids technology issues pose more attractive challenges for engineering and technology development around the world, issues related to the business model and its consequent economic impacts on agents (utilities, consumers, government, dealers, manufacturers, etc.) in future electricity markets, development of Sustainable Smart Markets is the true issue that, in fact, is (or should be) the top interest of these stakeholders, who are (or should be) motivated in the search for optimized and economically, environmentally and socially sustainable solutions.
Due to the increasing complexity [7], the impact of smart grids implementation can only be understood in its real dimension, focusing on the smart grid on a broader perspective than just a combination of new technologies, commercial practices, and regulatory challenges. As a function of this complexity, we must model the market associated with it according to criteria that may reflect public efficiency (or even better, public effectiveness), environmental impact and social responsibility of all agents. Therefore, it is necessary that the technologies introduced by smart grids also create socio-economical value.
This section presents the application of an economic market model for the evaluation of sustainable socio-economical policies based on smart grid technologies [8-10]. This market model [11-14] can represent at least the most basics of these issues, such as the impact of the aggregated income in electrical consumption, the welfare so produced, and the new trading strategies available, especially for the inclusion of low-income consumers. The heart of this model is the consumer's representation as an interface of purchasing, prices, and income. One of the outstanding features exhibited by the smart grid ambiance is the bi-directionality of the flows of money and energy, which are exchanged between the market players, i.e., the consumers (which turn to be consumer-suppliers) and supplier (which evolves in supplier-consumer). This model allows the evaluation of new ways for electricity consumers inclusion policies.
Therefore the challenges discussed here are related to the development of such an economic model inserted in a regulatory context; highlighting the use of bidirectional flows of energy; analyzing the smart grid as a vector for the potential implementation of socio-economical policies; development of alternatives able to create socio-economical value encouraging low-income users proactively.
The electricity market modeling can be seen as smart dynamic equilibrium among agents, as illustrated in Fig. 3. In general terms, the impact analysis of smart grid deployment requires aggregated incremental models for the evaluation of the added value in the socio-economical welfare produced by this future new smart market, as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 5 presents the economic and physical flows in the conventional power market, considering unidirectional flows, whereas Fig. 6 illustrates the electricity market with smart grids, assuming the hypothesis of bidirectional flows of energy and money. This new future hopefully smart market will be sustainable if it can create socio-economical value and be acceptable for the whole society.
Due to many interdependencies (environmental, technical, economical, regulatory, social, etc.) of Smart Grids it is a challenge to guarantees the operational and economic rationality of the electricity market. For the economic-regulatory evaluation of the solutions in the context of Smart Grids, the economic model of the electricity market called TAROT (Optimized Tariff) can be used [8-14]. TAROT is an economic model that represents the electricity market and was developed as a didactic tool. However, it has been shown to be a suitable model to predict qualitatively and quantitatively the behavior of agents under various relevant circumstances in the context of intelligent electric networks, in a way that maximizes the socioeconomic welfare produced by the electricity market.
Fig. 7 presents a diagram of the monetary streams taking place in an elementary electrical energy distribution market. Physical assets and financial assets are related in this model, which expresses a didactic overview of the economic fluxes taking place in this market.
The optimization function od maximizing the Socio-Economical Welfare Added (EWA) by the electricity market and the restriction proposed (which can include others) is of utmost importance for the sustainability of the power industry. This is especially true in the context of growing distributed and renewable generation, which, is environmentally supported worldwide, however, if not properly designed and deployed under careful social, political, economic, regulatory evaluation can have devasting effects of the optimum equilibrium required for the sustainability of all stakeholders.
For example, for some particular technical-economical advantage of financially well stablished prosumers in the market, the widespread uncontrolled penetration of photovoltaic distribute generation, besides the benefit of alleviating the need for power from the utilities (of course, reducing their revenues) if implemented without proper design and operational functionalities of voltage regulation through smart inverters, may cause voltage rises in distribution feeders, imposing to the utilities the cost of regulation, which in turn, ends up being paid by all the customers, due to regulatory policies. This may cause an spiral of deteriorating impacts (technical, economic, social) which not only may eventually cause bankruptcy of power utilities, but also do not distribute the benefits of technology to reduce the socio-economic differences between poor and riches. This is called the “reverse Robin Wood phenomenum”.
Even though not explicitly considered in the TAROT model, the Socio-Economical Welfare Added (EWA = ECA + EVA) should also include part of the surplus coming from the taxes paid to the government, which main purpose is to assist optimal society equilibrium.
In a world of growing uncertainties (climate changes, political instability, environmental natural or artificial disasters, financial and economic crisis, worldwide diseases, etc.) a deterministic model is of limited use and application for short period forecasting. Therefore, including risk analysis through the development of a stochastic economic market model is under development with the objective to assist in the design planning and operation of sustainable smart electricity markets.
This electricity market model can then be used for many applications, such as the evaluation of public policies for the social inclusion of electricity consumers in the smart grid scenario. At first, two policies can be verified:
a. Public Policies for Social Inclusion in Conventional Environment: Tariff Discount
The most common way to implement social-economic policies is the tariff discount applied to a subset of users declared as low-income. So that this discount does not affect the economic and financial balance of the dealership, it will be necessary to predict an increase in the tariff applied to other users.
b. Policies Based on the Smart Grid: Encouragement for Auto Production
It is, for example, the endowment of a microgenerator (solar or wind) through which the user of low income can sell energy to the dealership at a contracted tariff. The outcome of this deal works as an equivalent discount in the tariff.
By comparing the cost of microgeneration with the tariff discount, it is possible to obtain, in purely financial aspect the advantage of either strategy, which always has to pay attention to sustainability issues.
Table II and Table III [8-10] presents the forecasted advantages, disadvantages and risks associated with each policy:
Therefore, as main conclusions on this section, it is possible to affirm:
• An economic electric market model is needed to investigate the relevance of the deployment of smarter grids, evaluating the socio-economical welfare produced by this new market in comparison with the existing one.
• An economic market model can be used, for example, to evaluate public policies for customer inclusion such as tariff discount or renewable sources endowment. There is a profound difference between the two open policies: While the former may be seen as a social-based characteristic, the second implies in an opportunity for entrepreneurship and inclusion of market agents.
• It is not easy to express these differences in monetary terms, but its importance as a social issue and even moral and its contribution to sustainability is undeniable.
• Therefore, it is necessary that the technologies introduced by Smart Grids also create socio-economical value and promote social well-being, reducing the inequalities between people and countries on this same planet. This principle may be the grounding philosophical foundation for the engineering design of new technology.
9.4 Technological Knowledge and Design
Philosophers are still debating the question “What is knowledge?”, Without coming to an accepted definition. Justified true belief is not enough for an answer as it may not be completely applied in every situation. Some extra conditions would need to be added. However, it can be said that knowledge must be established from the outside to be valid.
Now regarding technological knowledge, six categories have been proposed [21]: fundamental design concepts; design criteria and specifications; theoretical tools; quantitative data; practical considerations; design instrumentalities.
These categories can also be helpful in assisting the engineer in evaluating the consistency of the knowledge from which a design needs to be developed. The categories reveal, for instance, that part of technological expertise is normative (for example, knowledge of criteria and specifications), whereas in natural sciences all knowledge is purely descriptive. This can also be seen in the knowledge of functions. That knowledge does not refer to what the artifact does (a broken car is still a car) but to what it ought to do. This feature, too, is absent in natural sciences.
The multidisciplinary nature of engineering and technology products increases the complexity of the design process such that one needs more than just a rational, linear methodology to deal with the technological knowledge. Knowledge of a range of aspects (see Table I) is needed in engineering to make a successful product.
The interaction of these factors is not the difference for all products and needs to be distinguished across different technologies: mechanical, electrical, chemical and biotechnologies. An alternative classification which shows the interactions and dynamics can be divided as follows: experienced-based technologies in which the social factor plays a role from the very start since the users and designer have knowledge of the product; the macro-technologies which is affected by social factors but is mainly determined by the physical nature of the product; and micro-technologies in which the design draws more from the micro-level particles and structures.
In the design process, models are used for investigating the design options, possibilities, and consistency of the performance. The following steps have been proposed: Perform detailed analysis of the problem; Develop conceptual design; Develop provisional design; Develop final design; Develop a prototype for production. Philosophical reflection on the nature of such schemes makes us aware that they have the nature of a model: they are simplified versions of a much more complicated reality. This awareness can help engineers to give a proper place to these schemes and not follow them blindly.
The modeling process about market integration has four basic components [3]: Clear selection and definitions of the objectives of a project; Proper integration and coordination of all functions and factors; Proper justification of the specification compliance; Value characterization for guaranteed sustainable company business. Here, again, philosophy of technology points out that this is a model and not reality itself. The truth that such a scheme contains is a partial truth.
Philosophical reflections on the dimensional aspects of reality (Table I) can also shed light on the shift in meaning that the concept of quality underwent since the late nineteen seventies. Initially, it referred to the quantitative aspect only (the percentage of products that at the end of the production line appeared to malfunction). Nowadays, much more elements are involved, and the central question became how each of these issues can contribute to customer satisfaction. Other factors to consider could be included in the design process and which could make the product more useful and successful such as Cultural Appropriateness; Stewardship of Resources; Justice; Caring; Trust; Transparency; Integrity; Humility.
The success of the designer is related to how well these factors are integrated and considered in the process. Sometimes the process is more art-driven than knowledge-driven.
9.4 Philosophy of Technology aiming to cope with the growing Complexity of the Electrical Grid
As technologies evolve, complexity and interdependencies become evident. For example, as the electrical grid develops towards smarter integration of systems, one needs to consider:
• the complexity of new technologies and operating structures;
• the different kinds of ‘orchestrated and non-orchestrated behavior’ of all agents (passive and active) that affect the overall performance of the systems;
• the interactions among active agents and hierarchy of controls;
• the performance based on governmental standards: ecological, economic, judicial, and sustainability aspects.
Figures 8, 9 and 10 illustrate some of this technological complexity and interdependencies in an emerging power system.
In this context, philosophical/rhetorical questions for aiding the design of Transmission Grids with High Penetration of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) can be:
• What is the nature of the Transmission Grid with high penetration of renewable energy sources (TG+RES)? (Differentiation among functions, aspects, and norms).
• How the technologies for TG+RES can be normatively integrated considering all human functions and aspects, stakeholders’ ideas and visions of the smart grid of the future?
• How to properly integrate energy storage to cope with the variability and uncertainty of RES?
• Which business model could attend the needs of Smart Grids Innovation and provide a balanced and sustainable future for the utilities and the new investors?
• What are the new roles of State and Federal Regulatory Agencies in proposing public policies that create general welfare, not only private welfare?
• How can Transmission Grids and Distributed Renewable Sources and Storage Systems Operate in a Stable and Sustainable Way?
• What will be the added Energy + ICT Infrastructures required for the Integration?
9.5 Integration of Renewable Energy Sources into the Grid
The successful integration of renewable energy sources and implementation of smart grid technologies will require a holistic analysis and design process. Evaluation of European smart grid projects showed that it is challenging to grasp technological and non-technological key characteristics of this complex system. These key characteristics include, among others, the difficulties encountered during the data collection process; the lack of quantitative data to perform analyses; the recognition of the higher complexity of the system and the lack of proper integration; the difficulties with the setting of business models; the lack of consumer involvement; the need for proper ICT infrastructure; the need for better data protection and security; and the need for a legislative framework to ensure proper division of responsibility [22].
Specific attention to the social implications of renewable sources and innovation in three primary areas are necessary:
(a) Integration of sustainable energy sources;
(b) Development of smart grids to accommodate production and consumption of energy under market signal incentives;
(c) Development of models to understand the non-technological aspects of the production and consumption of energy, e.g., social and ethical questions. Also, these non-technological aspects have to be integrated into the design of sustainable sources and smart grids.
9.6 Applying Philosophy of Technology for the Smarter Grid of the Future
Today, it is well accepted that one of the greatest challenges of humanity in the next several decades is related to the production of enough energy to satisfy the demands of the western lifestyle. The energy dependence issue, which was a science fiction remark in the 40s [23], has become the main concern to communities and governments. “Two things about our world particularly stuck in their minds. One was the extraordinary degree to which problems of lifting and carrying things absorbed our energy.”
Efficient, less polluting and renewable sources of energy are desperately sought all over the world. The need and desires of the users are under consideration. New technologies are being continuously developed. Lifestyle adjustments, new economics, and environmental impact are considered as more sustainable developments become necessary.
But, due to the complexity of the energy problem, the solution will require more than a massive number of good uncoordinated initiatives which are usually based on reductionist approaches. More than ever, a clear philosophical understanding and an integrated analysis taking into account a broad, systemic and holistic view of all aspects of renewable energy is necessary [22].
For example, electric power and energy systems of today are undergoing major changes in how they are evolving in their structure and how they are competing to meet the load demand. They are moving from a centralized utility system of today to a distributed utility of tomorrow with Smart Grid technologies being applied across the electricity system, including transmission, distribution and customer-based systems as illustrated in Figure 11.
The changing landscape has promoted the development of new concepts in which smart grids have become the new design approach towards the development of the future electric networks allowing an integrated and enhanced performance and diagnostics.
Although there is already much interest and available funding to bring this new system into operation, there is still no commonly accepted definition of what a smart grid should be. This scenario places a situation in which a philosophy of technology could assist in the development of the electric grid of the future. For example, one could start by asking some fundamental philosophical and ontological questions: “What do you mean by a smart grid?”, “How is it composed?” Then go on to epistemological questions – how different and better performing will this new grid be? – Will these new features enhance the technological process and improve the quality of service? Next, methodology questions could be asked [such as] – Will the integration of the power and telecommunication infrastructures work as expected by the known methodologies or will new ones need to be developed? Metaphysics questions – Will the user and society as a whole benefit from this new entity? And finally, issues of ethics/aesthetics – Will the user have control of this new technology or have his or her life controlled by it?
These questions, which are many times asked and adequately addressed, need to be continually and intentionally raised by engineers.
About the design, one must always ask: have technological, market, political, juridical, ethical, etc. were taken into account? Has the model considered factors such as cultural appropriateness, justice, caring, trust, transparency, integrity, and humility? Mostly, how can that affect the operational aspects of power systems of the future?
9.7 Technical Implications of Renewable Sources
The advent of renewable sources creates an environment of cooperation and opportunities that must be correctly managed to balance socio-economic welfare, financial gains, reliability and quality of supply. This problem should consider the intermittent nature of the renewable sources, especially when the amount of solar and wind generation into the system becomes relevant.
The supply of sustainable energy is one of the most significant challenges of modern society. Governments, universities, and industries must cooperate intensively to develop sustainable energy sources that meet future requirements.
The long-term global prospects continue to improve for generation from renewable energy sources making the fastest-growing sources of electricity with annual increases averaging 2.8 percent per year from 2010 to 2040, as seen in Figure 12. In particular, non-hydropower renewable resources are the fastest-growing sources of new generation in the outlook, in both OECD and non-OECD regions. Non-hydropower intermittent renewables, which accounted for 4 percent of the generation market in 2010, could increase their share of the market to 9 percent in 2040 [24].
Therefore, sustainable energy systems need innovation in three basic areas:
(a) development of reliable sustainable energy sources;
(b) development of smart grids to accommodate production and consumption of energy under market signal incentives;
(c) Development of models to understand the non-technological aspects of the production and use of energy, e.g., social and ethical questions. Also, these non-technological aspects have to be integrated into the design of sustainable sources and smart grids.
Planning and operating the power system of the future will require from Engineers to employ some knowledge not yet acquired and some fundamentals of Ethics commonly overlooked on formal Engineering grid. This opens a window for discussion that does not fit in this chapter. However, the challenge to understand the principles of this new power system is a reality. In 2013, during the IEEE PES General Meeting a panel on this topic was held. We quote the motivation of that panel, extracted from the invitation to attendees: “The electrical infrastructure of the future will be much more complex than the current one. It will have to integrate traditional and sustainable energy sources, present and new distribution systems, customers with quite different consumption patterns, and smart control systems. However, at this moment there are no comprehensively enough engineering models that can cope with the higher level of complexity of future electric grids. Consequently, engineers use traditional models to design the next generation of electrical infrastructure with the result that important interactions between technical systems will be overlooked; non-technical dimensions like the social behavior of customers or moral dimensions of smart control systems will be ignored, and the justified interests of economically weak stakeholders will be neglected.”
In this sense, the penetration of renewable energy into the traditional power grid must be studied under several points of view. To illustrate this, in this section some discussions are presented on voltage stability, reliability, and power flow studies when intermittent sources are considered. Some ethical aspects of system operation are also addressed with economic market implications. In this case, the idea is to show how different sources may affect the electricity market. Thus, protecting consumers from unethical players becomes a demand in the context of this new market.
Reliability studies for power systems are based on the rate of failure of components like generators and transmission lines. This kind of research helps planners to identify the effects of reliability on the system stability, power quality, protection and load flow. The growing influence of renewable generation places a new concern, since the operation of supply system may become strongly interdependent of the renewable energy sources behavior. This is particularly important when a distribution system contains many micro-generators, because of the uncertainty of primary sources, such as wind and solar radiation.
Some works have dealt with the problem of uncertainty in the load and generation, creating several operating scenarios. Also, some transmission lines are also removed to analyze the system´s response following a contingency.