Introduction
In recent years, the platform of government policy has had a convincing effect over the content and delivery of physical education within the school system. The quality of PE practice within schools has become more noticeable, providing a greater insight into the varying benefits of physical activity for school pupils. This essay aims to explore and critically analyse how policy has impacted upon the practice of PE within the school system, the extent to which these policies have influenced PE and any potential future adjustments which could be made. I will reference three strands of policy; health, sport and education policy and will subsequently go on to stress the importance of PE and how it influences all three aspects of government policy. (Bailey, 2006)
The purpose and aims of PE
It is often claimed that PE has many potential benefits for school pupils, particularly throughout adolescence whereby it provides a vast range of improvements for an individual’s mental and social wellbeing. As a recognition of these health benefits, guidelines surrounding physical exercise and activity have been developed by the Health Development Agency. (Biddle et al., 1998 in Fairclough et al, 2004 p.14) From a wider perspective, PE within schools provides a regular, structured setup of participation opportunities. The aims of PE have been widely challenged, with Simons-Morton claiming that “PE’s overreaching goals should be 1) for students to take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lessons and, 2) become educated with the knowledge and skills to be physically active outside school and throughout life.” (Simons-Morton, 1994 in Fairclough et al, 2004 p. 15). On the other hand, Sallis and MacKenzie state that the emphasis of the learning during PE lessons might logically “focus on the motor, cognitive, social, spiritual, cultural or moral development” of the individuals. (Sallis et al, 1991 in Fairclough et al, 2004 p. 15) In order to produce these behaviours, PE delivery encompasses a broad range of widely contested aims which have changed over time. Many authors within this field of investigation have acknowledged how these changes have had an substantial effect on the way in which individual’s respond to sport and exercise and how they relate it to their own bodies. More specifically, research has provided a basis of evidence upon which to accentuate varied, yet vital viewpoints. It is often claimed that PE has many benefits for pupils within the education system; for example, the correlation between physical activity and improved academic performance is supported by Coe et al’s ideas that a pupil’s academic achievement may improve as a result of “increased arousal”, “reduced boredom” and an increase in self-esteem which in turn lead to improved “attention span and concentration” levels. (Shephard, 1996 in Coe et al, 2006) Furthermore, from a health policy perspective, PE is said to aid obesity prevention amongst adolescents. This is supported by a study conducted on the relationship between physical activity levels and obesity prevalence in school-aged youth. (Janssen et al, 2005.) In recent history, there have been numerous changes in government policy prompting further transformations to national policy platforms, such as the publication of Moving and Growing (Ministry of Education, 1950). This movement held the objectives of focussing on gymnastic agility exercises with physical, social and cognitive development taking precedence. Further to this, the launch of the PESSCL strategy (PE, School Sport and Club Links) allowed for the nurturing of grassroots talent alongside the profiling of already talented athletes. These two movements help lay out a foundation pathway towards elite sport for individuals across all basis’ of talent. (Bailey, 2009)
Critical analysis of policy and practice
When approaching policy and practice from a critical perspective, it is important to understand that simple changes in the aims and objectives of PE can have major influence over how pupils both relate to and view school sport. Policy’s long-established objective has been to utilise the capacity of PE to improve education within schools. Whilst we are continually gaining a greater understanding of the social, cognitive and emotional benefits of PE, the understanding of PE as having a ‘wider goal’ of academic achievement still remains questionable within society. Physical education and school sport (PESS) is regularly highlighted as having a positive association with numerous dimensions of psychological and emotional benefits for individuals. The mechanisms by which PESS may be a contributory factor to heightened academic achievement and cognitive wellness is still yet to be clearly understood and solidified as a reliable argument. A study by Chaddock-Heyman et al highlighted that children who participate in high levels of exercise show decreased fMRI brain activation levels alongside improvements in attentional and interference control tasks. This relatively persuasive evidence implies that children who take part in physical activity are more prone to improved concentration and arousal which, therefore, may indirectly benefit their overall academic performance. Indeed, from this understanding we can conclude that many claimed PESS educational benefits are majorly dependent upon “contextual and pedagogic variables.” (Bailey, 2009)
With reference to the development and influence of educational policy, a brief analysis of recent history suggests that educational change is more attributable to the ideological shifts and the introduction and influence of particular agencies, as opposed to the evolution of education occurring in political and cultural isolation. Over the past century, it is clear to see how policy changes have come into place: the mid 1940s boasts the introduction of the Education Act (Ministry of Education, 1944); the answer to the surging social and educational demands that emerged post-war and the widespread demands of social reform. 1944 Britain had turned to the “cessation of hostilities” with Butler’s Education Act becoming a “landmark of social welfare legislation” alongside addressing the personal academic progression of individuals. (The Guardian, 2004) The government’s focus where PE was concerned was based upon the idea for more opportunities to be available to young people within sport and beyond the national curriculum; Butler’s work was primarily a distinguishing tool to understand primary and secondary education. The responsibility for education was divided between the government, local education authorities and school head teachers who held the majority of the control over the curriculum. PE encompassed a child-centred approach to learning with enjoyment being the primary focus of their education. This new approach to PE within schools took over from the obedience focussed direction of learning from years before.
Moreover, political movements over the last decade have worked in conjunction with the adjustments to the delivery of PESS. Indeed, the introduction of Thatcherism and Neo-Liberalism in the mid-to-late 1970’s resulted in lesser funding for education alongside the introduction of SAT and Ofsted inspections as part of the government standard assessment tests. In alignment with the historical changes that we have discussed, PE continues to be significantly influenced by education policy.
Indeed, from the perspective of health policy, the growing rate of obesity and physical inactivity amongst children within the UK has become more prominent with recent epidemiological evidence and public opinion raising concerns amongst the population. Lobstein et al, highlights the problematic social trends which in turn, led to the increase in obesity cases within the UK. Indeed, one of the most common being the “increase in the use of motorised transport”, for example, children opting to use public transport as opposed to walking to school. (Lobstein, 2004) Furthermore, Lobstein highlights the “fall in opportunities for recreational physical activity” which inevitably causes an increase in obesity levels of children across the country. These ‘problematic social trends’ can be followed up by recent statistics released by Public Health England providing data from the ‘National Child Measurement Programme’ showing the number of obese children aged between 4 and 5 has risen for the second consecutive year from 9.3% to 9.6%. (Public Health England, 2017) Dr Alison Tedstone, Chief Nutritionist at PHE highlights the government’s awareness of this obesity crisis amongst young children stating children “deserve a healthy future” with these figures acting as a heavy reminder of the urgently required action. (Public Health England, 2017). Moreover, the obesity epidemic appears “prevalent in both developed and developing countries, affecting children as well as adults.” (WHO, 1997, p.1) Within this field of research, there is a vast selection of epidemiological and empirical evidence which supports the public concern that the “health effect of physical inactivity” is “pandemic” with extensive effects on the health, social and economic state of the population alongside its environmental backlash. (The Lancet, 2012) Indeed, as the consequences of lack of physical activity become more prevalent within society, government officials and politicians have implemented new guidelines to ensure more physical activity at a younger age so to prevent health issues in adult life. An example of these new, influential policies is the ‘Choosing Activity’ action plan directed by the Department of Health in attempt to “encourage and coordinate the action of a range of organisations to promote increased participation in physical activity across England.” (DoH, 2005 p.1) This brings together the ‘Choosing Health: making healthier life choices’ white paper as well as further government activity strategies to increase activity levels. Richard Caborn, Minister for Sport brings attention to empirical evidence whereby only 37% of men and 24% of women are sufficiently active to gain any health benefit. Further, 3 in 10 boys and 4 in 10 girls aged between 2 and 15 are not meeting the criteria for recommended levels of physical activity. (Caborn 2005, in DoH 2005 p. 3) These telling statistics highlight the need for these policies to assist schools in promoting a more physically active lifestyle for children, and in turn, reduce obesity rates.
Additionally, in the past two decades, changes in UK sports policy have had implications on the provision of PE and SS. John Major’s 1989 Prime Ministerial appointment shifted the original educational aims of PE and SS to exercise being a more accountable measure of physical activity. Indeed, this ideological learning is apparent in the policy document ‘Sport: Raising the Game’ issued by the Department of National Heritage in 1995. PM Major acknowledged this initiative as being the most significant set of principles ever to be published for the “encouragement and promotion of sport.” (John Major in DNH, 1995 in Penney et al, 1997 p.24) Further, the National Curriculum for Physical Education (NCPE) emerged with the intention to enhance the importance of “our great traditional sports” such as netball, hockey and football and put them “at centre of the stage.” (John Major in DNH, 1995 in Penney et al, 1997 p.24) In the early 2000’s the Labour government pushed for greater participation figures through the introduction of 110 specialist sports colleges which had an “explicit focus on elite sport.” (DCMS, 2000 p.8) This had an influential impact on provision of PE and SS which is offered in schools countrywide. The majority of funding for the PESSCL strategy came from the Labour government around the early 2000s period but was cut prior to the London 2012 Olympic Games causing a controversial dispute over whether the supposed Olympic legacy would prove as advantageous and favourable for the new generation of potential elite athletes.
Possible future development
Having critically discussed all three policy’s in the context of PE and SS it is crucial to understand any future development potentialities. Although government policies have sought to produce a greater understanding of issues so to advance education standards, sport policy in particular, tends to focus on the ‘production’ of elite athletes. This focus on competitive sport which may be causing a decline in participation levels amongst student, could potentially be resolved by extending the syllabus to move away from the task-motivated work ethic that is being promoted. Furthermore, broadening the range of activities will cater for a greater range of abilities and so will move away from the current emphasis on “supplying talented youngsters for elite sport” and “neglect[ing] the majority of less talented pupils.” (Hamilton, 1941 p.11 in Kirk et al, 2000 p.120.) Moreover, the recognition of sports which haven’t, as of yet, reached elite status within the UK should be introduced to allow students to attempt new activities where they may feel more comfortable. This could be implemented through National Curriculum changes as a way of recognition that elite sport may not be one of the primary concerns of every school pupil. Moreover, the delivery strategies implemented may have an adverse effect on the enjoyment and participation levels of pupils. For example, collaborative learning has been empirically proved to increase retention levels of under-represented groups and so would allow for those pupils with lesser confidence to have a more active role in learning. (Prince, 2004 p.4) Although government policies cannot combat every issue, adjustments can be made to ensure a more collective and explicit understanding of the overriding aims of PE and SS.
Conclusion
The aim of this essay was to critically analyse health, education and sport policy with specific reference to their impact on the delivery and reception of PE and SS. Having critically understood that each policy holds an influential weight within the realm of PE and SS, there is difficulty in establishing its primary aims. The overall effect of government policy on school children has proved to be greater than first anticipated and so the potential difficulties which may emerge should be addressed in order to solidify the objectives of this relatively recent addition to the National Curriculum.