From the moment a baby is born, increasingly complex patterns of thinking and perceiving, moving and relating, speaking and listening emerge. The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2004) believe an “environment of relationships” is crucial for the development of a child’s brain, which lays the foundation for academic growth, mental health and interpersonal skills.
The factors which can influence the development of these skills can be loosely grouped into three areas. Firstly, environmental risk factors include living in an unsafe community, receiving low-quality child care, having a lack of quality resources and policies to support optimal growth. Secondly, family risk factors such as mental illness, substance abuse, family violence or poverty, and thirdly, within-child risk factors such as personality, cognitive or developmental delay, and serious health issues (Cooper, Masi, & Vick, 2009).
The way in which a child develops these skills is affected by the quality of the relationship with a caregiver, often called the child’s attachment to the caregiver (Engle & Huffman, 2010). Attachment outcomes are a result of the interaction of both nature and nurture, that is genetic temperament dispositions coupled with the early relationships (Schore & Schore, 2008). Quality early relationships allow infants to explore their environment safely and contribute to the establishment of a broad range of social skills (Tereno et al., 2013).
Variable 1
Children growing up with family risk factors such as mental illness in the family, parental substance abuse, family violence, or poverty show higher rates of difficulties with regulating their emotions, relationship problems and developmental delays (Cooper, Masi & Vick, 2009). Maternal risk factors such as substance abuse, mental health conditions and domestic violence exposure impacts the ability to support children’s development. This diminished cognitive and emotional well-being emanates from less nurturing and engaged parenting (Kiernan & Huerta, 2008). Specifically, Goodman & Rouse, (2010) found that postpartum depression has been associated with negative infant temperament, insecure attachment, cognitive and language development difficulties and lower self-esteem.
A study conducted by Luoma, et. al., (2001) titled “Longitudinal Study of Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Well-Being” investigated whether prenatal, postnatal, and/or current maternal depressive symptoms were associated with low levels of psychosocial functioning or high levels of emotional/behavioural problems in children. The study employed a group which consisted of healthy first-time mothers. The sample was a random sample of 349 mothers. They represented healthy Finiish first time mothers. The data was collected from all maternity health clinics in the city of Tampere during a 6-month period in 1989–1990.
The depressive symptoms of the mothers were screened by means of questionnaires during late pregnancy and three times postnatally. At the third stage of the follow-up study a postal survey was conducted during the period November 1997–April 1998. The depressive symptoms of the mothers were screened, and the firstborn children’s psychosocial functioning and emotional/behavioural problems were assessed by questionnaires completed by parents and teachers.
The depressive symptoms of the mothers at different time points were screened with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The mothers completed the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) questionnaires (Achenbach, 1991a). The Teacher’s Report Forms (TRFs) (Achenbach, 1991b) were completed by the teachers. The TRF Adaptive Functioning score and also Internalizing, Externalizing, and Total Problem scores were used. Results indicated an association between low social competence and low adaptive functioning with concurrent maternal depressive symptoms. Maternal postnatal depressive symptoms predicted a lower level of social competence. The presence of prenatal depressive symptoms in the mother was a strong predictor of child’s high externalizing and total problem levels (odds ratio 3.1, 95% confidence interval 1.1–8.9 and odds ratio 8.5, 95% confidence interval 2.7–26.5). Prenatal as well as recurrent maternal depressive symptoms were associated with the least favourable child outcome. It was concluded that maternal depressive symptoms are a risk factor for a child’s healthy development. The relationship between postnatal depression and young children’s development is suggested to stem from attempting to parent in high stress environments, causing a lower level of quality parenting. In addition to this, further studies examining the role of maternal depression and child health continue to provide similar results. A study conducted by (Carter, Briggs-Gowan & Ornstein, 2001) observed mother–infant interactions, infant attachment, and toddler social problems and competencies. The results indicate that lifetime maternal depression was able to predict less optimal mother–infant interactions and insecure infant attachment. Prenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms were associated with problem behaviours and lower competencies for boys. Furthermore, mothers with comorbid diagnosis had less optimal interaction and infant with higher rates of insecurity. Therefore, it is important to examine the context of maternal depression with respect to additional psychopathology and environmental risks. (Kiernan & Huerta, 2008) attempted to include these additional risks in a study examining economic deprivation, maternal depression, parenting and children's cognitive and emotional development in early childhood. This study examined the extent to which economic circumstances in infancy and mother's mental well‐being are associated with children's cognitive development and behaviour problems at three years of age. The analyses showed that economic deprivation and maternal depression separately and collectively diminish the cognitive and emotional well‐being of children, and part of this diminution emanates from less nurturing and engaged parenting by those with less economic and emotional resources. (change words)
Variable 2
As discussed, early social development is impacted by not only home experiences, but variables originating from within the child or external to the home. The within child variables include variables that are genetic or biological in origin, such as temperament, developmental delays and illnesses.
Study 1
Webster (2006) explored the problems mentally delayed children have with emotional development. The study included the examination of 159 pre-school developmentally delayed children with a focus on their emotional development. Mental retardation, along with other clinical diagnosis such as developmental delays, are syndromes which are not specifically focused on academic issues, but regularly includes an impairment in social-emotional skills. Psychological characteristics were more closely related to the degree of retardation than to any other diagnostic factor. Further analysis was undertaken in a study by Gath & Gumley (1986) with two groups of children, 193 children with Down's Syndrome (DS) and 154 children with a similar degree of handicap. Irregular behaviour was markedly more common in both sets of retarded children than in their siblings; 31% of the children with DS and 29% of controls were judged to be well adjusted, while 38% of the DS children and 49% of the controls had significant behaviour disorder. Conduct disorders were most common in the children with DS. While global mental retardation shows delays in social development, it is further questioned if delays in narrower cognitive areas can cause similar delays.
Study 2
Irwin, Carter, & Briggs-Gowan, (2003) examined the social problems and competencies of toddlers who indicated delays in expressive language without related receptive language delays. Late talkers were rated higher in depression/withdrawal and lower in social relatedness, pretend play/imitation, and compliance on the Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment and more withdrawn on the Child Behaviour Checklist than controls. Observation indicated late talkers were more serious, more depressed/withdrawn, and less interested in play. Late talkers were reported to be lower in socialisation on the Vineland.
Variable 3
Environmental issues, such as living in an unsafe community, receiving low-quality child care, lack of community resources or policies supporting children and families influences social development of children. Previous studies showed that parents’ level of education were good predictors of their children's emotional skills (Dunn & Brown, 1994) whereas another study showed that children's family social-economic status was a poor predictor (Greig & Howe, 2001). Peisner-Feinberg, et al (2003) conducted a longitudinal study of the cognitive in social development of 733 children focusing on the quality of their preschool. The results show evidence that child‐care quality has a modest long‐term effect on children's patterns of cognitive and social development at least through kindergarten, and in some cases, through second grade. The closeness of the teacher and the relationship with the child was related most strongly to strength of social skills.
Study 2
The effects of child care with children from low‐income families was studied by Votruba-Drzal, Coley & Chase-Lansdale (2004). A Three‐City Study (N=204) examined the influence of child care quality and the extent of care on low‐income children's (ages 2–4 years) cognitive and social development over time. Higher levels of child care quality were modestly associated with improvements in children's social development, and extensive hours in child care were linked to increases in children's numerical skills and decreases in behaviour problems.
Conclusion
The development of each child is unique and is affected by a range of complex home, external and internal variables. Inherited, development and experiences influence the social development of children. The early years of life present a unique opportunity to lay the foundation for healthy development. Negative early experiences can impair children’s mental health and effect their cognitive, behavioural, social-emotional development (Shonkoff, 2000). Ample evidence exists indicating that the prenatal and early postnatal years are likely represent a sensitive period with respect to the effects of stress on the developing nervous system and behavioural outcome, and with respect to the long-term beneficial effects of early interventions on brain and behavioural development. (Cooper, Masi & Vick, 2009). Ginsburg (2007) suggests that while we strive to provide optimal conditions for growth, it is essential that all children should be reared in a safe environment, engaging in a wide range of academic and social enrichment opportunities.