Stereotyping and Representation:
The Importance of a Complex Cultural Narrative
Racial and ethnic stereotyping has been a form of oppression throughout the history of many nations. Reducing a group to a singular, negative identity developed in order to keep it from advancing to the position of its oppressor, and as a relief of responsibility from oppressive actions. This has been applied to numerous groups, perhaps most notably — Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, and Asian Pacific Americans. From degrading slurs like “greaser,” or “coon,” to blackface television shows; stereotypes have been used to entertain, dehumanize, enslave, and torment. The damage caused by an oversimplified identity, lies in the fact that one group creates this image on behalf of another. When one strips another’s right to their own identity, it creates an ongoing cycle of power imbalance, loss of humanity, and often times — violence. This pattern benefits groups in power by giving a sense of complete control over one’s livelihood. Unfortunately, this loss of integrity for the oppressed is deep-seated in American culture. Perhaps even more harmful, it is not as recognizable as it once was. Through modern-day systems of oppression, such as media misrepresentation, and lack of awareness; stereotypes continue to persist. Expanding the incomplete identities of those who have been antagonized by stereotyping, would help in repairing the damage caused by stereotypes.
To begin understanding the nature of stereotypes means to also understand by which means they have developed, and their historical context. When discussing the following four groups — Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, and Asian Pacific Americans; a key detail to emphasize is their history of conquest. Aside from Asian Pacific Americans, conquest is the precedent to many systems of oppression; including stereotyping. Stereotyping is not a singular event by any means, and therefore should be treated as a continuing part of the negative culture surrounding the four groups discussed.
Native American History/Damage vs. Benefit
It is important to learn how stereotypes benefit the oppressor and limit the stereotyped group. Using the Native American experience as an example, stereotypes were used to enslave, dehumanize, and separate Native Americans from “white” American mainstream society. White colonists created the “savage” stereotype in order to justify the colonization of native land. By believing the Native Americans were uncivilized, settlers claimed a right to any land they deem to be “wild” or “untamed”.
An extreme lack of representation in media further emphasizes the erasure of Native Americans from the perceived cultural narrative in the United States. Media misrepresentation, or lack of representation is perhaps one of the most effective ways to maintain the status quo regarding oppression. Specifically, in the modern age of technology. A study and survey performed by 3 researchers — Tukachinsky (PhD.), Mastro (PhD.), and Yarchi (PhD.), analyzed racial and ethnic portrayals of minorities in television over a period of 20 years, using 345 most popular U.S. television shows.The goal of the study was, as stated, “…to predict national-level racial/ethnic perceptions…” (Tukachinsky et al. 17). According to the study, “…Native Americans constituted the most severally underrepresented group. Out of 2,336 regular characters in 12 television seasons, merely three characters were coded as Native American…” (Tukachinsky et al. 24). Evidently, a lack of representation would imply a complete nonexistence of Native Americans in society if media representation was proportional to an accurate census of the U.S. population.
Furthermore, the minimal representation in media is almost always stereotypical and oversimplified into a “Pocahontas” narrative. A book titled, GENDER, RACE, AND MEDIA REPRESENTATION by Dwight E. Brooks and Lisa P. Hébert explains this trend.
“They argue that Native American women are viewed in the media as either strong and powerful or beautiful, exotic, and lustful and that both images have merged together into one representation through the stereotype of Pocahontas…Ultimately, Pocahontas is no more than a sexualized Native American Barbie. Both Portman and Herring (2001) and Ono and Buescher (2001) agree that the Pocahontas mythos is particularly harmful to Native women because of the way this historical figure has been exoticized by media discourses that emphasize her relationship with her white lover, John Smith” (Brooks and Hébert 303-304).
Such a simplistic, and “whitewashed” trope undermines the historic context for the real story of Pocahontas. The inaccurate portrayal of Pocahontas that is popularized in media would imply her character’s willingness, and even excitement; about assimilating to white culture, and being subjected to conquest. Especially as in the case of the Disney portrayal of Pocahontas, her encounters with colonists eventually ends with a compromise, and the “Disney ending”. This type of plot line is completely dismissive of the struggles of Native Americans throughout history, and further ingrained a lack of awareness for its historical context. As briefly mentioned, there is a benefit to this type of storyline, relating to the oppressor. Being understood as a voluntary victim of conquest would confirm implications that suggest Native Americans are simply too “savage” to understand the lack of civilization in their own society. Therefore, the concept of white colonists challenging the right of Native Americans to their own land is not only justified, but also necessary for the betterment of what is perceived as “modern” society.
African American Stereotype History/Damage vs. Benefit
Parallel to the Native American struggle, African Americans faced a history of enslavement, violence, and disregard for their humanity. Events such as slave trade by way of the Middle Passage and lynchings were blatant in nature, and confirmed in history books as an accepted fact. However, blackface in TV shows; serve to remind the ways in which stereotyping has evolved to be often less violent, but also more implicit. Currently, a more complex history of African American struggle is not addressed beyond a basic level in many forms of education.
Blackface, and a lack of education thereof; is a vital example when providing an explanation for why the oppressive system of misrepresentation occurs. Using black struggle for profit and humor is not a new phenomenon. Categorizing black characters as the well-known “mammy,” “Sambo,” and “Uncle Tom” tropes was a way to simplify black characters into something that is easy to swallow though the medium of entertainment. Since there was no positive portrayal, viewers could then generalize stereotypes as a societal norm. In a more modern sense, these stereotypes have not evolved drastically in their usage. While they may appear less humorous, these racist narratives continue to be used as a way to confirm society’s more private, or taboo, inner beliefs. This especially comes across in the popularized myths of black violence, sexual promiscuity, and the almost instant association with the terms “ghetto,” and “urban” to African Americans.
Beginning with the falsehood of “black violence,” it is essential to consider biased news reporting. This can be considered one of the most ingrained and damaging portrayals, due to the fact that news media is often associated with being factual, and commonly seen as less partisan than more primary forms of entertainment like TV shows and movies. An article appropriately titled The Myth of Black Violence, highlights the disparity between a minority African American population and the likelihood of arrest.
“At first glance, the negative portrayal of life in America’s ghettos seems unassailable. Black people constitute 13 percent of the population. However, according to the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) prepared annually by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), black people are more than half of those arrested for murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault—the most serious violent crimes. This is five times the rate for white people (U.S. Department of Justice, 1985),” (Stark 485).
This is significant, because a higher rate of arrest will inevitably lead to more news coverage—inaccurately portraying the arrests of African Americans as being proportional to the population. Viewers of news media are inevitably more likely to believe in the myth of black violence if they are exposed to the stereotype via news channel.
The next generalization faced by African Americans is the representation of black men and women being sexually promiscuous, and lustful. Much of the history preceding this stereotype stems from the belief that black women cannot be victims of rape, because they are always willing, and sexually depraved participants. Black men, on the other hand, are viewed as rapists and individuals who are simply too “wild” to avoid succumbing to their “natural” instinct. This myth particularly applies to associations of white women with black men. Making promiscuity an inherent characteristic of African Americans would be very beneficial to excusing the need to control and target the group.
Using the most recent presidential election of Donald Trump as a case study, one can begin to examine how using certain terminology and ideals can continue stereotyping, regardless of wether it is intentional. Jennifer Rubin, a columnist for The Washington Post newspaper may help to explain how the current president’s use of terminology adds to a negative portrayal of a stereotype mentioned earlier—African Americans, and the term “ghetto”.
“[Donald Trump] speaks of ‘the’ blacks and ‘the’ Hispanics, a classic ‘tell’ that the speaker considers members of a racial or ethnic group as standing apart from ‘us,’ an undifferentiated mass in which individual characteristics are subsumed under group identity,” (Rubin 3).
Word choice that identifies an ethnic group as the “other” in a society
Chicano Stereotype History/Damage vs. Benefit
Similarly, African Americans, Hispanics, and Latinos were portrayed as depraved, sexually promiscuous, animalistic, violent, and uneducated. This allowed for oppressors to maintain their control over such groups.
Asian Pacific American Stereotype History/Damage vs. Benefit
A common way to control Asian Pacific Americans, was to target males specifically. By emasculating men, this takes away a sense of confidence, self-esteem, and dominance within society.