There have been a large amount of studies conducted in relation to the importance of gender equality in the developing world. There have also been numerous studies into the negative affect female genital mutilation, or clitoridectomies, have on young women. This paper aims to combine the research of these two sectors and establish a clear link between the elimination of female genital mutilation and an increase in female empowerment. Eradication of processes that subjugate women leads to a liberation – socially, politically, or even economically. It will become evident that one cannot have progress without eradicating progress that infringe upon basic human rights and liberties that we consent to receive as a member of civil society.
There are, of course, limitations to this. The conflicting ideologies of the mainstream and ethnoculturalism must come into consideration. I will argue that I can still come to the same conclusions by using a middle ground of sorts, using a consistent baseline as a starting point but evaluating on a case by case basis, based loosely on Aristotle’s notion of phronesis, or practical wisdom.
Female genital mutilation is a horrifying process of cutting and removing female sex organs. It is commonplace in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. Essentially, it seeks to control sexuality and is rooted in a long and wrought history of violence and discrimination. Clitoridectomies are procedures in which they intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. There are no health benefits to girls or women. Procedures are often not conducted by those with medical backgrounds, and can cause severe bleeding, problems urinating, cysts, infections, complications in childbirth and an increased rate of infant mortality, not to mention psychological trauma and the need for later surgeries in the case of infibulation (known as defibulation). It is a complete violation of human rights of girls and women, especially as it is conducted primarily on girls under the age of 15 and is generally done without their consent.
There are 4 major types of female genital mutilation as identified by the WHO. The first is a partial removal of the clitoris, the next is a total removal of the clitoris and labia minora, the third, called infibulation, is a creation of a covering seal, oftentimes through stitching, and finally the fourth is any other harmful and non-medical procedure performed such as incisions or cauterizing the genital area.
It is estimated that over 200 million girls and women alive today have undergone this procedure in 30 different countries. Female genital mutilation is recognized internationally as an immense violation of human rights, and reflects a deep-seated inequality between the sexes. It violates a girl’s right to health, security and physical integrity, the right to be free from torture or cruel and unusual punishment, inhumane or degrading treatment and the right to life. This physical violence is a way of separating women from gaining access to the world around them.
Now, economic development has varying definitions and indicators that identify true economic success. Economic development is defined as the development of the economic wealth of countries, regions, and the well-being of their inhabitants. It is essentially a qualitative measure of progress. This can be indicated by the development and adoption of new technologies, a transition towards an industry based economy and a general rise in living standards. Robert Zoellick, the President of the World Bank said in 2007,
“Globalization offers incredible opportunities. Yet, exclusion, grinding poverty, and environmental damage creates dangers. The ones that suffer most are those who have the least to start with – indigenous peoples, women in developing countries, the rural poor, Africans, and their children.”
The role of women is critical to economic development. Studies show that without female empowerment, economies will fail and nations will go to war. Globally, women are far poorer than men. Women and their dependents remain the most economically vulnerable group in developing countries. The welfare of women and children is so strongly interconnected with the design and integration of development programs. In order to improve living conditions for the poorest individual, we must be able to incorporate women into the mainstream economy. This can be achieved by implementing policies — with adequate funding — that place emphasis on increasing female participation in education, employment and agriculture. By providing women with equal access to government resources, such as state fund education, social security, and welfare programs, women are given the platform necessary for success.
Women are far more likely to be illiterate, malnourished and impoverished than anyone else on the planet, this phenomenon is amplified in women living in rural areas. A disproportionate number of households are headed by women in rural areas, and those households have a much lower earning capacity. Children in these households are far less likely to be enrolled in school, and are more likely to be working on farms or in factories in order to provide a supplemental income. Furthermore, women are often paid less for performing similar tasks, and in many areas, they are banned from occupying higher paying jobs. Even in urban and wealthier areas, there remains a wage gap in place that either prevents or dissuades women from pursuing that line of work, or blatant discrimination that systematically prevents women from entering these positions, most notably entering the C-Suite space. Many studies indicate that there is a strong bias against females in fields such as nutrition, medical care, education and finance.
Legislation and social customs prevent women from working and owning property. In some cases, they are not even able to receive an inheritance, or sign financial contracts without the consent of either a father or a husband. The work of women in the household often is unremunerated despite women having the customary obligation of child rearing. As an even more crude example of the lack of respect of women in societies, female to male sex ratios are far lower than ever anticipated. This is due to rampant femicide. Male children are favored nearly always because they have historically, and accurately, been perceived to have a far greater earning potential, especially as in some societies women are not even allowed to work. These internal and external biases clearly influence the economic status of women in the region.
Women transmit their values to future generations. To make the largest impact on future generations, a society must, logically, empower and invest in the people instilling these values. By increasing women’s access to education, it helps rectify this issue. By providing an education, it helps to enhance critical thinking skills, productivity and decision making. This, in turn, leads to faster economic growth. Furthermore, increasing female participation in the labor force and reduction in the wage gap also leads to increased growth.
By empowering women in society, and investing in women, we can help progress forward. Developing policies that integrate women, as stated previously, greatly improves the welfare of women and children. Kofi Annan stated that “Gender equality is a prerequisite for other MDGs [Millennium Development Goals].” This means that without gender equality, the eight other goals set by the United Nations for bettering the international community will fail.
While to us, this answer may seem quite straightforward, in societies that thrive upon the oppression of women, we see a clear denial of these proven facts. The studies are clear – where women work and are independent, economies grow. Where women’s share of the income in the home is high, there is less discrimination against females and women are better able to meet their own needs, as well as the needs of their families. They are far more independent and everyone benefits as a a result of this. Thus, it becomes unsurprising that when societies invest in women, societies increase in development as a whole.
FGM restricts this from occurring, and affect their ability to act beyond the scope of themselves. Once FGM is curtailed, society becomes more empowered, more equal and more progressive as the limitations of sexual freedom is a limitation on free speech itself. With such empowerment, there are more opportunities for women to take hold of positions of power, and when that occurs, conflict resolution and levels of personal safety are heightened.
An equal society empowers everyone within that society, from the bottom up, to rise and progress forward. Feminist thinker Professor Marie O’ Reilly, the Director of Research at The Institute for Inclusive Security, firmly believes that more inclusive societies lead to more peaceful ones. She furthers, stating an increasing level of female participation in government helps prevent violence and provide security, as “Decisions about war and peace… [are] more likely crises resolved without recourse to violence.” The more women making decisions regarding policy, the lower the risk of civil war and human rights abuses. A study of 40 peace processes in 35 different countries over the past thirty years illustrated that women’s groups, when able to successfully influence, a peaceful agreement was always the conclusion, but when women did not participate, that rate was significantly lower. Additionally, when women are present in negotiations, treaties have themes long term impact, lasting nearly 35% longer than its counterparts.
Furthermore, females in powerful roles bring trust to government and promote an equal dialogue and free speech. Women also build successful coalitions and aim for peaceful conflict resolution. Former U.S. Ambassador to Angola, Donald Steinberg, also stresses the importance of women in discussions of peace, stating,
“Not only did this silence women’s voices… but it also meant that issues [such] as internal displacement, sexual violence, abuses by government and rebel security forces, and the rebuilding of social services… were given short shrift— or no shrift at all… The exclusion of women and gender considerations from the peace process proved to be a key factor in our inability to implement the Lusaka Protocol and in Angola’s return to conflict in late 1998.”
Not only do these issues play a huge role in future stability of nations, but women in power increase the discourse on gender equality. In Africa, women in legislative positions in post-conflict nations has nearly doubled. This form of participation lessens the likelihood of relapsing back into conflict, and through careful reconstruction, leads to more inclusivity and equality, in addition to promoting discourse and greater freedoms. Additionally, a study conducted in post-conflict societies in both Liberia and Sierra Leone found that in regions where women were more vocal and free, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations were significantly more successful than areas without such equality.
Female empowerment and economic development are inextricably related. Development itself brings about female empowerment, but along that same vein, female empowerment will bring about economic development. By having a voice and maintaining that voice, it creates an impact. It is a mutual reinforcement process. We cannot have one without the other, but both need support in order to be bolstered in the future.
Through this, it can be concluded that women, and high levels of discourse, go hand in hand for promotion and progression of nations as a whole. Women help promote conflict resolution and long term peace agreements. However, women require their own agency and consciousness in order to effect change, and this comes from maintaining control over their own bodies first.
The connection from economic development to female genital mutilation is simple. For this, we must work backwards. Female genital mutilation is an attempt to continue to subjugate women. It is a gross violation of human rights, and does not allow women to exercise freedoms they are entitled to. When societies violate human rights, especially the rights of women, they are not able to thrive as well as if they did have gender equality. Thus, by hindering women’s attempts to join the workforce and retain independence, societies are impeding female contribution to the economy, hampering progress. Areas in which women are not given a voice – where their right to freedom of speech is violated – we see an increase in backwards practices that physically harm women. This goes far beyond just genital mutilation, into domestic violence, honor killings and even suicide (sati).
Looking specifically to The Gambia, banning female genital mutilation and integrating a health curriculum into education system has increased youth involvement and is protecting future generations of girls through the use of media by disseminating information. By training health care professionals and systematically sharing information during education sessions, it helps to ensure the future generation will not undergo such harms. With increased awareness through education, we can see the steps that individuals, communities and countries are taking in order to prevent female genital cutting from permeating.
The process of FGM has been condemned by the United Nations as a violation of human rights. But, as stated, it is a common practice in the Middle East and North Africa. The conflict of ethnoculturalism comes into view in the case of the “Seattle Compromise.” A group of Somali immigrants moved to Seattle, Washington and attempted to continue the practice of genital cutting, however, wanted doctors at Harborview Medical Center to attempt the procedure, likening it to male circumcision. If the doctors did not do so, the young girls would be taken back to Somalia to have the practice done there. After much deliberation, the doctors did a symbolic version of the ceremony, with parental consent, general anesthesia and creating no scars. The Duke Law Review wrote, “It is about an effort by a group of Somali immigrants in Seattle that tested to the maximum the boundaries and integrity of the American tradition of tolerance…” Liberal discourse as a result was enraged, as it was still considered female genital mutilation and should not have occurred here, in the United States of America. While to many, if not most, it is a brutal, outdated and nonconsensual practice, it has profound meaning in certain cultures. Reconciling these conflicts is a difficult path but must be considered in order to come to a secure conclusion.
A way to evaluate this practically is through phronesis. At times, attempting to follow algorithmic and principled models can be useful, however circumstances vary drastically, and there becomes a middle path to be considered. Through this, there is no rigid conformity. To Aristotle, phronesis is a particular type of wisdom that is considered by historians to mean prudence and consideration. It is an essential characteristic of a virtuous man. Within Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes that phronesis is the basis for rational and virtuous thoughts. One must be able to take an active and engaged approach in order to live a good life. Aristotle, although mostly agreed with his predecessor, Plato, believed that true virtue was not just a given ability, but one that must be applied from the abstract. He writes, “For we say that to deliberate well is the most characteristic function of the prudent man; but no one deliberates about things that cannot vary nor yet about variable things that are not a means to some end, and that end a good attainable by action; and a good deliberator in general is a man who can arrive by calculation at the best of the goods attainable by man.” It is a combination of knowledge and perception. This means that the intellect learned must be applied properly. It requires one to apply the knowledge to the real world by using judgements to come to the best solution at a particular moment.
People from various ethno-cultural backgrounds have a right to exist, and that right should not be infringed upon simply due to liberal majority rights. With that said, when considering controversial issues that toe, or even cross the line into blatant harm, I agree with Jacob Levy, who states that we must make decisions on a case by case basis, but should be using the precipice of avoiding cruelty. By evaluating each circumstance based upon precedent, knowledge, and present-sense impression, a more accurate and holistic approach. This is seemingly the most effective way to negotiate practices that violate ethical norms. By analyzing it through a lens of what causes the most harm, taking it as a piecemeal – rather than following precedent to a tee – allows for the most rational decision to be made. This sense of practicality determines the middle ground for the conflict of the mainstream and ethnoculturalism to reside upon.
In my opinion, the only time one’s limit to cultural membership should, in fact, be curtailed is the extent in which it is infringing upon one’s own or someone else’s life. Along the lines of John Stuart Mill’s Harm Principle, people should be allowed to practice one’s ethnocultural lifestyle sans judgement by the liberal majority.
Mill believes firmly that without human freedom, there will be no progress in areas such as science, law, and politics. He believes that all opinions, whether right or wrong have a right to being expressed so long as it does not inflict harm upon anyone else. To John Stuart Mill, the only reason to curb this freedom, just in the slightest, is only if it is in order to suppress and prevent harm from occurring to oneself or someone else. The issue of FGM is clearly a limitation of free speech as it promotes violence, inequity and subjugation against a particular set of people— women under the age of 15. These injurious acts are in fact, unjust. Mill also believes in a certain form of ‘moral police’ in order to enforce social rights that must be regulated. It is unjust to silence others, and in the particular case of clitoridectomies, the Harm Principle must be cited. Mill states, “A person should be free to do as he likes in his own concerns; but he might not to be free to do as he likes in acting for another, under the pretext that the affairs of the others are his own affairs.”
With that said, in dire cases where a head on clash is seen between these customs and what society has previously dictated, it must be approached through a thorough and thoughtful perspective, applying consequences from the past to the situation in the present. In the case of female genital mutilation in the United States, I do believe the doctors in Seattle made the best possible choice given the circumstances. Should those girls be sent back to Somalia, there is no guarantee that they would, in fact, return, or if they should return, return unscathed. Female genital mutilation, as stated previously, has only negative health consequences and is not normally facilitated by a doctor. This was the best chance for these young girls to live a fulfilled life to the best extent possible. That is the perfect iteration of my perception of phronesis. That is the logical middle ground. One’s right to cultural practices should not be curtailed, despite being perceived as illiberal or immoral, unless it infringes upon one’s right to life. FGM infringes upon the right to life.
Female genital mutilation thrives in impoverished areas, in which there is little to no development, or access to education. Therefore, girls are subjected to a cruel and harmful process, simply as a mechanism for increased control by male figures. This is unduly and unfair and can be helped by increasing access to education, and implementing policies in which rights are preserved and women are encouraged to have a seat at the table, through continued education, access to governmental programs and healthcare, as well as access to jobs and economic contributions, economic development increases. By increasing education, you can increase gender equality, thereby increasing economic development.
Thus, I conclude that FGM should be universally banned and enforced. Through an analysis of economic and social development in relation to female genital mutilation, we can see that when society is able to progress, women are able to seize more power and control, thereby becoming proponents for change, and largely benefiting nations as a whole, pushing them towards progress, innovation, and further economic development and success.