Paste your essay in here…THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
(Weltanschauung: A comprehensive conception or apprehension of the world especially for a specific standpoint – from the German Welt = World and Anschauung = View)
The scientific revolution of the seventeenth century was the major cause of the change in worldview and one of the key developments in the evolution of Western society.
Although it owes much to ancient Greek and medieval Arabic knowledge only the West developed modern science; historians disagree as to how important its rise were the non scientific economic, religious, and social factors
Causes of the Scientific Revolution
The scientific revolution was the product of individual genius-such as Newton building on the works of Copernicus and others
Also, medieval universities provided the framework for the new science
The navigational problems of sea voyages generated scientific research and new instruments
Better ways of obtaining knowledge about the world improved scientific methods
Bacon advocated empirical, experimental research
Descartes stressed mathematics and deductive reasoning
The modern scientific method is based on a synthesis of Bacon’s inductive experimentalism and Descartes’s deductive mathematical rationalism
Scientific thought in the early 1500s
European ideas about the universe were based on Aristotelian medieval ideas
Central to this view was the belief in a motionless earth fixed at the centre of the universe
Around the earth moved ten crystal spheres, and beyond the spheres was heaven
Aristotle’s scheme suited Christianity because it positioned human beings at the centre of the universe and established a home for God
Science in this period was primarily a branch of theology
Astronomy and Physics
The trial of Galileo evidenced the widening rift between science and the church
From the mid 16th century to the beginning of the 18th century, a scientific revolution took place that changed how Europeans thought of themselves and of the world and universe around them, fundamentally changing history
Science wasn’t new to the 16th century, what was new was the methods scientists engaged in and the questions scientists asked
Scientists of the Middle Ages sought answers which would fit into their preconceived notions about the universe and the world
For instance, it was assumed that planetary orbits were a perfect circle because of God’s will, and stubbornly held to the belief that the Earth was the centre of the Universe
This way of thinking held scientific progress in check, as Scientists did not look for new answers, they attempted to confirm old ones
As the Renaissance brought a new age to art and religion through classicism and humanism, new scientific methods would revolutionize science, as scientists started to use experimentation to develop new theories
Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus, a Polish clergyman and astronomer, claimed that the earth revolved around the sun and that the sun was the centre of the universe
Drawing inspiration from Aristarchus of Samos (a third century Greek philosopher), Copernicus developed a heliocentric model of the universe in On the Revolution of Celestial Spheres, where he held that all planets orbited the sun instead of the earth
This heliocentric theory was a departure from medieval thought and created doubts about traditional Christianity
Copernicus also suggested that the earth rotated on its axis every 24 hours and that the Moon orbited the earth
While his ideas were brilliant and novel, he was in many ways a conservative thinker whose conclusions were based more on philosophy than science
Galileo Galilei
Galileo was a Florentine astronomer who attempted to prove Copernicus’ beliefs through scientific and mathematical experiments
For instance, he rolled balls down slopes and measured their velocity, and in doing so proved the idea of inertia (that objects in motion tend to stay in motion and objects at rest tend to stay at rest)
Galileo discovered through a handmade telescope that the moon was not smooth, but had craters and mountains, he discovered that the sun had spots, and discovered that Jupiter had moons; these discoveries enhanced his belief in Copernican’ beliefs
Said “in discussion of physical problems we ought to begin not from the authority of scriptural passages, but from sense-experiences and necessary observations”
In Galileo’s Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, he openly supported Copernican notions, and described the opponents of it (like the Jesuits) as simple-minded; the ensuing public support for his ideas led to a battle of forward thinking against the conservative beliefs of the Church
Galileo discovered the laws of motion using the experimental method – the cornerstone
He also applied the experimental method to astronomy, using the newly invented telescope
Galileo was tried by the Inquisition for Heresy in 1633 and forced to recant his views
Tycho Brahe
Brahe was a Danish aristocrat who made thousands of observations on planets and stars, for instance disproving Aristotle’s belief that stars are fixed and unalterable; however, he did not agree with Copernicus in a heliocentric universe
Brahe set the stage for the modern study of astronomy by building an observatory and collecting data
Johannes Kepler
It required the brilliance of Kepler and Isaac Newton to build on the work of Copernicus and Galileo to further our understanding of the universe
Kepler had once been Brahe’s assistant and was a contemporary of Galileo
He was convinced that Copernicus was right, and set about formulating mathematical laws which governed the solar system through planetary observation
He developed 3 laws of planetary motion
1: Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun as the centre, disproving Galileo’s belief of circular orbits
2: As a planet moves closer to the sun, it moves more quickly, as it moves further from the sun, it moves slower. Disproved idea that heavenly motion is constant
3: Size of a planet's orbit is proportional to the time it takes to orbit the sun. He proved that “the square of the ratio of the time it takes any two planets to complete their orbit equals the cube of the ratio of these planet’s average distance from the sun”
Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton – English scientist, provided great synthesis that would draw together the discoveries made during the preceding century.
Used concepts of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler
Formulated three laws of motion
If no force acts on an object, it will remain at rest or maintain its constant motion in a straight line
Every change of motion or acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force that caused the change and inversely proportional to the object’s mass
For every action force, there is an equal reaction force in the opposite direction
Work began in Poland – Copernicus, continued in Italy – Galileo, and Germany – Kepler, and finished by Newton in England
THE REVOLUTION IN ANATOMY
William Harvey
Unlike predecessor, Vesalius, Harvey (English physician), not satisfied with divine power as explanation of workings of the heart
Published On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals in 1628 – book about heart
Harvey described the heart as a pump rather than a filtration plant (traditionally described as filter)
Harvey discovered in 1 hour, heart pumps more than a person’s mass in blood – means that the veins would burst if blood were not somehow circulating
Believed in circular blood flow – heart -> arteries -> veins -> heart…
His work opened up whole new set of questions and problems regarding blood and human anatomy
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE BIRTH OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY
Scientific Method
The underpinning of the scientific revolution was a new approach to determine truth
Centuries – people believed that you arrived at truth by relying on long-trusted authorities such as the bible or classical scholars
Two key figures in outlining new scientific methods were Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon was a product of the English renaissance
Well versed in politics, literature and philosophy, he earned a lasting reputation for work in science
Rejected deductive methods of middle ages – stressed importance of direct observation in ascertaining truth
Wrote book called Novum Organum, published in 1620 to replace Aristotle’s Organon
Aristotle’s Organon is a collection of his six major works on logic
Book proposed a method of inquiry still used in scientific study today
Believed that knowledge is a basis for power and allows humans to control nature
René Descartes
René Descartes laid the foundations for modern philosophy, though he remained a devout Catholic throughout his life
His greatest contribution to the intellectual revolution of the seventeenth century was his application of methods and reasoning used in mathematics to the field of philosophy
René Descartes did not believe that you can rely solely on your senses in the search for truth – unlike Bacon
Maintained that all things can be doubted
Senses can be deceived and information can be false
Proof of our existence comes from the fact that we think
Descartes said: “I think, therefore I am”
All other truths are based on mental perceptions
The thinking of Descartes led to a conception of the universe as purely mechanical and physical
He was able to rationalize God’s existence only through reason because God cannot physically be experienced
Questioning Political Legitimacy Hobbes vs locke
Reformation challenged authority of papacy and roman catholic church
Sci revolution challenged long term beliefs on universe, basis of knowledge
Claiming to govern by divine right losing credibility as traditional values challenged
Hobbes and locke wrote discourse beginning with imagining life in the state of nature, before diverging dramatically
Thomas Hobbes
Witnessed conflict of English revolution of 1640’s; political policy shaped by chaos following execution of king Charles I
In book Leviathan hobbes explains justification for any govt
Described humans as selfish aggressive left to own resources would be in constant state of chaos.
In “state of nature,” humans are free, but also had to fend for themselves against dangers
Believed that only the establishment of an absolute sovereign could bring peace out chaos
John Locke
Locke agreed with Hobbes that humans came from nature, as in “state of nature”
However, he believed that they came together to form societies and were capable of that without a King.
He believed in a social contract, that people gave up some rights in exchange for a the benefits of a society.
Locke believed that government came from giving up those rights, but there were some rights that were protected, unalienable ones like Life, Liberty and Property
Accordingly, he believed that power came from the people and should stay with them, leading to a belief that the people can remove a bad government and the people’s rights come first.
He also believed that the people should revolt if the government tried to repress those rights, since he believed in the primacy of the people.
Locke and Hobbes influenced later constitutions.
US Constitution influenced by Locke’s inalienable rights
BNA influenced by Hobbes’s belief that the government exists to regulate behavior.
US Constitution was Locke-like, as it guaranteed rights.
Along with the scientific revolution, there was a revolution in the views of monarchy.
Absolutism (Russia, Spain and France) was challenged by Constitutionalism, the idea that the government should be checked by an elected parliament.
That conflict led to open war and regicide in England