Assessment is a widely used term in many aspects of life, having a wide range of functions. It is an integral part of teaching.
In the past “testing” was considered somewhat unpopular area of language teaching and learning. Both students and teachers found this aspect of language learning a burden. Fortunately, a lot has changed in the past few years: measuring the students’ knowledge has become more complex. The term “testing” has been replaced by “assessment”, which includes testing, but it is much more. Testing is considered a product, while assessment is a process. Testing usually happened at the end of a module, chapter or term and it usually served administrative purposes: to measure the acquired knowledge of the students and to give grades or scores. Assessment on the other hand is a continuous process, which should happen every day, during each class. Its role is to provide feedback to both the student and the teacher about what is going on in the classroom, how effective teaching and learning are. While testing was the duty of the teacher, assessment involves both teachers and students. Testing is just one of the many forms of assessment.
Students often receive the assessment from the teacher in terms of praise or blame. One of the teacher’s roles is to encourage students by praising them, but if we over-compliment them, it might be counter-productive. According to Harmer students who are addicted to praise will be attention-seekers and they will not care if they are making any progress. (Harmer, 2007, p. 139)
I.1.1.The purpose of assessment in the classroom
Regular assessment of progress in the classroom can be beneficial for both the teachers and the students. “Without assessment, teaching would be incomplete and it would be nearly impossible for students to have any systematic indication of their abilities with respect to what they have been taught” (Anthony Kunnan& Kirby Grabowsky, p.304)
Firstly, for the students it can be a motivational tool, in order to get involved in their own language acquisition. According to Cohen: “One of the primary reasons for conducting language assessment in the classroom is to promote meaningful involvement of students with material that is central to the teaching objectives of a given course.” (Cohen, 1994, p. 13.)
Secondly, students get regular feedback on their work. In this way they can learn about their strengths and weaknesses regarding language learning. “Regular assessment of learning can provide learners with feedback about their language performance at various stages in the developmental process. While assessment is taking place, students are getting feedback on how well they perform on those tasks. Once the task has been scored and evaluated, students learn how well they did on what was assessed. Depending on the quality of the feedback and the attention the students give it, they may learn something about their areas of strength and also about the areas in which they are weak, prompting further learning or review.” (Cohen, 1994, p.14)
Assessment can also benefit teachers. “When the results are in, the teacher can see how well the students did on the material being assessed and check for any discrepancies between expectation and actual performance. This information may indicate how well the students are learning or if they have mastered the material, how well the teacher has put across the material, and how well the item was written. Such feedback to the teacher can suggest areas for instruction, for review, or for improving future assessment” (Cohen, 1994, p15)
Moreover, parents are usually interested in their child’s progress, so assessment is also important for them.
Assessment also serves administrative purposes, because in most countries and schools grading students is a requirement. In Romania by the end of the semester the students must have at least as many grades as the number of classes per week. In addition to this some types of classes also write “term papers” the score of which will represent 25% of the students’ final grade.
Recently two terms have been used to describe assessment: assessment for learning and assessment of learning.
• Assessment for learning takes place during the learning process, in order to “decide where students are in their learning process, where they need to go and how best to get there” (Cheng & Fox, 2017, p. 6)
• Assessment of learning takes place after the learning process in order to measure how much the students have acquired or if learning has happened at all.
Traditional testing usually serves the purpose of assessment of learning, often serving administrative purposes. Because it usually happens at the end of a learning process, it has little or no effect on learning. Assessment for learning on the other hand involves both teachers and students and its role is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the learning and teaching process, to provide feedback in order to improve.
Icy Lee mentions a new term: assessment as learning, “which is a subset of assessment for learning” (Lee, 2017, p. 10). In this case the learner is a connector between the assessment and the learning process; he/she has an essential role in assessment. Assessment as learning is part of assessment for learning. “Assessment as learning encourages students to monitor and exert self-regulation over their thinking processes and stresses the importance of fostering students’ capacity overtime to be their own assessors. Students take a proactive role in their learning, use assessment information to self-assess and self-monitor their learning progress, reflect on their learning, and make adjustments in their thinking so as to achieve deeper understanding and to advance their learning.” (idem)
In conclusion assessment in the classroom should have the purpose of encouraging, helping students to acquire knowledge.
I.1.2. Who are we assessing?
High-school students are teenagers and they often represent the most challenging age-group to teach. They have acute need for approval, not just from the teacher, but also from their peers. The teacher’s job is to provoke student engagement with material which is relevant, authentic and involving. Harmer considers that: “they must be encouraged to respond to texts and situations with their own thoughts and experiences, rather than just answering questions and doing abstract learning activities. We must give them tasks which they are able to do, rather than risk humiliating them.” (Harmer, 2007, p. 84)
Teachers should always want to learn more and more about their students, because by doing this they will know what is that they exactly need. By knowing what our students are interested in and what their learning goals are, we can choose tasks which are motivating and engaging for them. So starting from the first class, teachers should not only try to learn the students’ names, but they should also try to find more and more about their personalities. This can be done by handing out a questionnaire to a new class in which we ask questions like: “Why do you think learning English is useful?” or “What types of activities do you like doing during English classes?” The students might feel uncomfortable and shy at first, but if they see that the classroom is a safe place, they will gradually open up and they will be eager to talk about their feelings and attitudes.
We must never forget how sensitive teenagers are and be careful when we assess a speaking activity for example. We should always focus first on what was good, praise them and then talk about what they could do to improve. Otherwise they will be reluctant to take part in a speaking activity.
We should always be careful when we assess teenagers. According to Harmer “whenever we ask students to give opinions or write creatively, whenever we set up a role-play or involve students in putting together a school newspaper or in the writing of a report, it is important to give feedback on what the students say rather than just on how they say it.” (Harmer, 2007, p.138)
I.1.3. Formative and summative assessment
Another way of categorizing assessment is formative versus summative assessment.
Summative assessment is usually formal, it is meant to measure the students’ ability and to provide grades or scores. It focuses on what the students have learnt as a result of a period of instruction. (Katz, 2014, p. 322)
Formative assessment on the other hand can be informal. Its aim is to analyse the progress of the students, to guide the teachers’ future teaching and the students’ future learning. It should be regular part of teaching as it helps to promote student learning during the process of instruction.
Katz uses the following list to demonstrate how assessment can be used for both summative and formative purposes:
(source: Katz, 2014, p.322)
Although formative assessment has become very popular in the last decades, we must not forget about the usefulness of summative assessment either. So ideally we should try to implement both in our teaching process.
I.2. TESTING
I.2.1. Traditional language testing versus current approaches to language testing
As the methodology of language teaching has radically changed in the past century, so have the assessment techniques and methods. In the past testing was a means of verifying if the students had learnt the lesson or not. New approaches to language assessment have emerged as alternatives to traditional testing. Terms such as authentic assessment and alternative assessment are now used to characterize practices that engage learners in demonstrating their language skills using authentic and communicative tasks. To illustrate the difference between traditional and modern testing, Katz uses the following table:
(source: Katz, 2014, p. 322)
I.2.2. Characteristics of good tests
In order to test our students’ language abilities, we must be aware of the characteristics of a good test. According to Harmer: “good tests are those that do the job they are designed to do and which convince the people taking and marking them that they work. Good tests also have a positive rather than negative effect on both students and teachers.” (Harmer, 2007, p.167)
Reliability
“The reliability of a test concerns its precision as a measuring instrument” (Cohen, 1994, p. 36). This means that anyone marking the test should come up with same results. But because people mark differently, there is always the danger that different results will be given by different markers, except if the text contains only questions which can be scored by a computer. As a result, a test should be designed to minimize the effect if individual marking styles.
Validity
The validity of a test refers to the fact that it measures exactly what it is supposed to measure – “it does what it says it will” (Harmer, 2007, p167). According to Andrew D. Cohen the validity of a test can be: content validity, criterion-related, systematic or face validity. (Cohen, 1994, p.36)
Practicality is also an important factor that we need to take into consideration. We need to consider how long it will take to do the test and mark it. It is unfair to give the students test which they cannot finish in the given time-frame.
Michael Harris also mentions accountability as a basic feature of a good test. This means that the test should provide learners, parents, institutions and society in general with clear indications of what progress has been made. (Harris, McCann, 1994, p. 4)
Grabowsky and Kunnan use a modified version of the theoretical interpretive and validity arguments by presenting the notions of claim and evidence. “Claims are assertions or statements that assessment developers make regarding an assessment. These claims are generally stated by testing agencies, but they also serve as a good model for teachers who develop assessments. Evidence is defined as any research finding based on the analysis of assessments, assessment performance, and the impact of assessments” (Kunnan, Grabowsky, 2014, p. 310)
They list five possible claims and their evidence.
(source: Kunnan, Grabowsky, 2014, p.311)
According to Madsen: “Tests can benefit students, teachers, and even administrators by confirming progress that has been made and showing how we can best redirect our future efforts. In addition good tests can sustain or enhance class morale and aid learning.” (Madsen, 1983, p.5)
I.2.3. Test types
At certain times, students have to or want to be tested on their ability in the English language. There are many different classifications of tests.
Placement tests – when the students arrive at a new school or start a new course and they need to be put in a group at an appropriate level. We also use this type of tests in order to decide which textbook to use. In Romanian educational system these are called “initial tests” and are compulsory at the beginning of each academic year. Usually the teachers can design these tests.
Progress tests – these can be done at various stages during a term or a semester. These tests can give information about how well the students have assimilated what they have been taught over the last weeks or a month.
Diagnostic tests – these are usually given to identify certain problems the students might have, using certain language structures, grammar functions. The purpose of these is to inform the teacher about the areas on which they should place more emphasis.
Achievement test/Exit tests – at the end of a term, semester or a year in order to see how well the students have learnt everything. In Romania, in certain types of high-school classes, it is compulsory to write so called “Term Papers”. The mark given for these represents 25% of the final mark at the end of the term. It is also recommended to take “Final tests” for each type of class, in order to get a clear picture of what the students know.
Public examinations – there are numerous types of them offered by different institutions, for example Cambridge ESOL, University of Michigan etc.
In Romania at the end of high school every student has to prove their knowledge in a world language. This is part of the Baccalaureate exam. The language exam consists of four parts, testing writing, listening, reading and speaking. The students will get a separate certificate for this, on which their level of the language will appear according to the CEFR (The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages). The main problem with this exam is that every student in the country gets the same test, so the level of certain classes is not considered. The highest level they can get is B2.
Language portfolio – this is one form of continuous assessment. In these, the students collect examples of their work over time: essays, worksheets etc.
According to Jeremy Harmer: “some students seem to be well suited to taking progress and achievement tests as the main way of having their language abilities measured. Others do less well in such circumstances and are better able to show their abilities in continuous assessment environments. The best solution is probably a judicious blend of both.” (Harmer, 2007, p.167)
I.2.4. Washback effect
Jeremy Harmer also mentions a certain “washback” or “backwash” effect of public exams or institution-designed progress or achievement tests. (Harmer, 2007, p.130) This happens when the teachers consider the form of the tests the students need to take and they start preparing them for the test, teaching the techniques for answering certain types of questions. In this way the purpose of the language learning is altered: we do not concentrate on teaching the students the four skills, but instead we concentrate on achieving a higher score on a certain type of exam.
However, the washback effect of testing can be positive as long as it encourages learning. For example if the exam which the students are going to take involves speaking, than practicing for it will have a definitely positive washback. But if the exam consists only of multiple choice test items, for example, then preparing for the test will obviously have a negative washback effect, because important aspects of the language will be neglected.
The role of teacher is essential in producing the right washback effect. So, instead of “teaching-to-the-test”, they should focus on the abilities which are being tested, not only on the test format.
I.2.5.Test items
Indirect test items – might focus on a word, collocation for example or phrasal verbs.
• Multiple-choice – the students are given alternatives to choose from. The advantage is that they are easy to mark. They are often used to test reading and listening comprehension. The disadvantage of these is that even the students with no level of English can get a certain score. Another disadvantage is that sometimes it is difficult to come up with different options.
• Fill-in and cloze – writing a word in a gap in a sentence or paragraph. The difficulty is that usually more than one item is possible, so we need to be aware of what different options we can accept. A variation of this is the cloze procedure, where some words are left out at regular intervals.
• Transformation/rephrasing – the students have to change the form of words and phrases to show their knowledge of syntax and grammar.
• Others: jumble words, make correct sentences, questions, identify or correct the mistakes, match the words, expressions, sentence halves.
Direct test items – The teacher asks the students to use the language, to do something.
• Reading and listening – they usually blend direct and indirect testing
• Writing – letter, essay, leaflets etc.
• Speaking – interview, role-play, talking about a topic.
The main problem with direct test items is that they are difficult to mark. In order to avoid subjectivity we can involve other people i.e. ask one of our colleagues to give their opinion on a paper. Another possibility is to use marking scales.
When we design tests for our students it is a good idea to make a list of the items we want to test. For example: present perfect, vocabulary related to jobs, phrasal verbs with get. Then we can decide how much importance we give to each of them and mark the test accordingly.
How can we assess our students’ work?
• Comments – this can happen at different stages. First we should always acknowledge the students’ efforts and then suggest improvements
• Marks and grades – good grades usually encourage students.
• Reports – at the end of a term or a year some teachers write reports on students’ performance
I.3. ASSESSING THE FOUR SKILLS
I.3.1. Assessment during speaking activities
Oral tests are qualitatively different from other types tests. According to Nic Underhill: “They do not easily fit the assumptions about people and testing. There is a lot of interest now in oral testing, partly because teaching is more than ever directed towards the speaking and listening skills, particularly in the early stages. Naturally, this should be reflected in the testing. In order to free oral tests from the burden of conventional language testing wisdom, they should be considered as a class of their own.” (Underhill, 1987, p. 3.)
Testing speaking requires a human approach, much more than testing the other language skills. There should always be an interaction, either between two or more test takers or the assessor and the test taker. Most teachers consider testing speaking as the most challenging to prepare, administer and score. One way teachers could simplify the task of assessing speaking is to limit the range of speaking activities tested.
• using pictures and preparing the questions ahead of time
• charts and graphs can also be used with mature students
• guided role-play- giving a situation and asking the students to role-play e.g. role-play cards:
(1a) You have an appointment tomorrow with your dentist, Dr. White, at 8 am. Call his office and try to reschedule your appointment to next week.
You are free next week on Thursday and Friday in the early morning. (1b) You are a receptionist at a dentist’s office. Dr. White, the dentist, is busy all this week. Next week she is free on Wednesday afternoon (3-5pm) and next Friday morning (8-10am). You will soon receive a phone call.
Note: your office charges $40 for canceling appointments without 24 hours notice.
(an example of a role-play card, source: www.englishcurrent.com/roleplays/roleplay-cards2-telephone/)
I.3.1.1. Accuracy and fluency
Depending on the activity we should decide if we focus on accuracy or fluency. For example during a role-play we shouldn’t stop the activity to correct the language used. However when the focus is on a particular aspect of the language, then we should correct the mistakes.
Feedback during accuracy
We can show incorrectness the following ways:
1. Repeating – we ask the student to repeat what they have said, indicating with intonation and expression that something is wrong
2. Echoing – we repeat what the student said, emphasizing the error
3. Statement and question – we can simply say “Good try, but that’s not quite correct”
4. Expression – we can indicate with a gesture that something is wrong. It is important not to appear mocking or cruel
5. Hinting – using a quiet hint. For example saying “tense” to indicate that they should have used the past tense
6. Reformulation – we simply reformulate the statement uttered by the student. This is the quickest way, but not the most efficient.
Feedback during fluency work
When the focus of the activity is on fluency, it is not advisable to interrupt the students to correct their mistakes. However we should not ignore the mistakes. Here are some things we can do:
1. Gentle correction – when the students do not know what to say, the teacher can help by suggesting something
2. Recording mistakes – while the students are doing an activity, the teacher can observe them and note down certain aspects, e.g. grammar, words and phrases, pronunciation etc. It is important to give both positive and negative feedback.
3. After the activity – the teacher can write the most common mistakes on the board, asking the students to correct them. It is not a good idea to point out who has made the mistake. It is enough if we only focus on the mistakes made by more than one person.
I.3.1.2. Types of speaking tests
• Presentations – students usually make a Powerpoint or Prezi presentation on a chosen topic. These can be useful in business or academic situations. One disadvantage is that the students sometimes memorise their “speech” and there is little chance for interaction.
• Interviews – students ask questions from each other. The advantage of these is that they are interactive, but they are not real conversations, because one person is asking the questions and the other is answering.
• Group-discussion task – This could be a solution for large classes, because the teacher can save time by assessing the students together. The disadvantage is that some students dominate the conversation, while others are reluctant to speak.
The tasks used in assessing speaking usually include:
• describing pictures
• comparing or contrasting things
• telling stories – sometimes based on pictures, or clues.
• giving some personal information – talking about their personal life, interests, plans or opinions.
I.3.1.3. Giving scores/grades for speaking
One of the most difficult tasks of the teacher is to grade speaking. First of all, the teacher should decide what is that he/she is looking for. It could be tempting to focus on the mistakes and on what needs to be improved, but it is also important to highlight what was good.
A practical way of grading speaking is using rating scales. These are usually tables in which there are descriptions of what is expected from the students at different levels. The teacher has to match the students’ performance to the descriptions in the scales.
For example at the Cambridge ESOL FCE exam the following rating scale is used:
(source: cambridgeenglish.org)
At the IELTS speaking exam each of the following aspects is scored: fluency and coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and vocabulary and pronunciation. (see Annex 1)
At the speaking test of the Baccalaureate exam in Romania two different scores are given: one for the way the test taker speaks and another one for interaction. The rating scale takes into consideration the quality of the interaction, use of correct grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. (see Annex 2)
I.3.2. Feedback on written work
Writing is communication, just like speaking. Some methodologists call them the two productive skills. So when we assess writing, we should not only consider features such as grammar or spelling, but also the way the language is used to communicate something. We should also consider some real-life situations in which writing might be used: letters, emails, messages or even social network posts. If we assign students tasks which resemble authentic situations, then they will be more motivated. In this case it is very important to think about who the test-takers are and what they are interested in. For example, asking a fourteen-year-old student to write an article about the impact of technology on medical science might be too demanding. But on the other hand, writing a letter about their summer plans or an article about teenage problems would be motivating for them.
I.1.3.1. Rating scales
Just like speaking, writing can also be assessed by using rating scales. There are two types of rating scales: analytic and holistic (also called global) rating scales. Analytic rating scales allow the assessors to give different scores for different aspects of writing, such as task achievement, vocabulary, and grammar, for example. Analytic rating scales can be useful for formative assessment, because they give students more detailed information about the strengths and weaknesses of their writing. Holistic rating scales give one overall score for a piece of writing. Holistic scales are often easier for teachers to use, and tend to lead to more consistent marking.
Example of holistic rating scale for writing ability:
(Harris, McCann, 1994, p.13)
Holistic scoring draws on an assessor’s response to an entire performance produces by the test-taker. These rubrics generate a single score for a performance. They are useful for a quick scoring of a language performance, for example at the end of a term. Their drawback is that they do not provide specific information about individual components or subskills. (Katz, 2014, p.330)
Another example of holistic writing rubric for assessing writing skills in a low-intermediate ESL class at secondary level:
(source: Katz, 2014, p.330)
Analytic scales rate the different components of a piece of writing and provide scores for each one. It takes more time to use an analytical tool, but they have the advantage that they point out the specific strength and weaknesses of a student’s writing skills. At most ESL exams analytic rating scales are used. For example at the Cambridge FCE exam each of the following aspects receives its separate score: content, communicative achievement, organization and language. (see Annex 3)
The marking scheme at the English “Olympiad” contest includes the following criteria: task achievement, organization and cohesion, vocabulary, structures and effect on the reader. Each criterion is graded from excellent (worth 10 points) and task not attempted (0 points). (see Annex 4)
Katz suggests using checklists as an assessment tool, besides rating scales. These are made up of lists of features of a language performance in which the assessor can note if the feature is present or not in the piece of writing. These are simple to use, however they do not provide information about the quality of the performance. (Katz, 2014, p. 329)
An example of the writing checklist:
(source: Katz, 2014, p. 329)
The type of feedback will depend on the kind of written work the students have undertaken.
• Correcting- many teachers use correction symbols, showing the students what they did wrong, without correcting the mistakes. E.g. T for tense, WW for wrong word etc. In this way, the students have to correct themselves. The problem with this strategy is that not every student will be motivated enough to try to correct their mistakes.
The most common symbols according to Jeremy Harmer (Harmer, 2007, p. 149)
• Peer-assessment – involving students by asking them to give feedback on each other. This can have a positive effect on group cohesion.
When we design the tests it is important to ask the students to do things which are not different from what we have done during the course.
Tests have an effect on the students’ motivation. Usually when a test is in sight, they start to work harder. If they are successful in a test, they also feel encouraged, but if they do badly, they are demotivated. Because of this we always need to take into consideration the needs of all the students, not just the ones that are doing well.
I.3.2.2. Types of writing tests
Vocabulary tests
Multiple choice completion
• a good type of vocabulary test
Steps: selecting the words to be tested, getting the right kind of sentence (also called stem), choosing several wrong words (also called distractors). Usually three distractors are enough for a written test. It is advisable to prepare one or two examples.
e.g She __________her coffee.
a.ate b.drank c. drove d.slept
There should always be one correct answer. Teachers should also make sure not to give away the correct answers through grammatical cues:
e.g. She needs to get up earlier so she needs an ____clock.
a. bell b. alarm c. watch d.time
A way of choosing the right distractors is to take notes of typical students’ errors in writing and speaking.
Advantages of multiple-choice completion:
• they help students see the full meanings of words by providing natural contexts
• they are easy to score
• scoring is objective
• they represent sensitive measurement of achievement
Disadvantages:
• preparing them is difficult and time-consuming
• students can easily cheat by copying from each other
• even the students who do not know the right answer might guess it
Simple word completion
These are word-building exercises, where students have to change the form of the word to fit in the context, for example nouns into adjectives or verbs.
Grammar tests
They are designed to test student proficiency in matters ranging from inflections to syntax. Choosing what grammar to test is relatively easy: all the structures which have been taught since the last test. Having a good context is very important.
Testing grammar can be done in various ways:
• multiple choice exercises
e.g. Choose the correct form:
He go/went/gone out with his friends yesterday evening.
• error correction
e.g. Correct the following sentences:
She don’t like watching horror movies.
We are eat dinner at the moment.
• inflection form – fill in with the correct form of the word in brackets
e.g. Paul always (play) _________football on Friday afternoons.
• the free response form
e.g. Add a question tag to these sentences:
a. They have already finished,__________?
b. You like him, _______? Or
Finish the following sentences with your own ideas (testing conditionals):
a. If I were you……
b. If you had told me earlier…..
• Close procedure
These are passages or paragraphs from which words have been deleted. These usually measure general ability in English, but they can also be adopted to test grammar. For example if we delete the prepositions, or some other grammatical item that has been studied.
e.g. a text with the relative pronouns left out
Dictation tests –they check spelling and vocabulary at the same time. Some methodologists consider them outdated; however some agree that they can be useful as long as they are not the only way of testing. Before giving such a test it is important to practice it. Scoring these tests can be difficult because the teacher must decide beforehand how many points the students lose for each type of mistake. For example one way of scoring this this type of test is to deduct one point for each error.
Free writing
Grading free writing is difficult, time-consuming and quite subjective. To make matters easier, teachers should limit the aspects they grade in a paper and communicate these to their students. For example at lower levels they could take into account vocabulary, grammar and punctuation. At higher levels more aspects can be taken into account: communicative achievement, organization, content, range of vocabulary etc.
Translations
Some methodologists consider translations outdated assessment tools, however recently we can witness a revival of them. They have been re-introduced in the Romanian national curriculum for high-schools and as a result they also appear in the so called “Olympiad” contest.
Paul Kayne believes that there are a lot of advantages of practicing translations in the ELT class. For example translation in groups can encourage learners to discuss the meaning and use of language at the deepest possible levels as they work through the process of understanding and then looking for equivalents in another language. Moreover discussion of differences and similarities during the translation process helps learners understand the interaction of the two languages and the problems caused by their L1. It also helps learners appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of the L1 and L2, for example in the comparison of idiomatic language such as metaphors. (Kayne, Paul, “Translation activities in the language classroom”, www.teachingenglish.org.uk)
I.3.3.Assessing reading
Reading is considered a receptive skill, which is used quite often by all of us: we read articles, novels, emails, text messages, social media posts, etc. When we choose the appropriate reading texts for our students we should consider not only their level of English, but also their interests and cultural background. Some topics may cause offence to some students, so we should be careful when we choose the texts and avoid topics like politics, religious beliefs or sexual orientation.
I.3.3.1.Task types for assessing reading
There are several task types to assess reading, each having advantages and disadvantages.
• Multiple choice questions: usually consist of a question or sentence, known as the stem and a list of alternatives which includes the correct answer.
• True/false items – these resemble multiple choice questions, but there are only two options, so the students have 50% chance to guess the right answer, even if they don’t understand the text. Sometimes a third option is added, e.g. “not mentioned”, so it might be difficult for students to distinguish between “false” and “not mentioned”.
• Matching task – students have to match headings or whole paragraphs with a text. It is very common to use a few distracters, e.g. seven headings for five paragraphs.
• Gap fill or cloze are texts having a few words taken out. The test takers have to fill in the text with the missing words. This type of test also involves textual and language skills, because the students have to write grammatically correct words.
• Short answer questions are a variant of open-ended questions. The students have to answer questions about a text, but they are required to use a specific number of words.
• Ordering tasks – the students have to put certain sentences or paragraphs in the right order.
• Integrated task – the students have to make notes from a text, paraphrase or summarise it. This also involves writing or speaking skills. It can be very difficult to score because it is hard to come up with a scale of criteria which includes both reading and writing (or speaking) skills.
Some reading tasks involve only reading skills (e.g. multiple choice, matching, true/false items), while others will also include speaking or writing skills (e.g. short-answer questions or open-ended questions). Each type of task has advantages and disadvantages, therefore including a number of different task types is probably the safest approach.
I.3.3.2.Scoring reading tests
When we score reading tests we should first of all decide how many points we assign for different tasks. Usually more difficult tasks should be worth more points, while easier ones less. We should also consider the purpose of the test: if there are tasks which also involve writing skills, it is not right to penalize spelling or grammatical mistakes only if they stop us from understanding the answer.
I.3.4.Assessing listening
Listening is considered a receptive skill alongside with reading, but it is definitely not a passive one. It is clearly a very important part of communication. For many teachers, listening is the hardest to test, because it is something which cannot be seen or measured, yet we need to test it.
I.3.4.1.Types of listening activities
1. Listening for gist – or general understanding. Students do not have to understand every word, because the idea is clear enough.
2. Listening for specific information – Listening for keywords and important ideas. Students would focus more on those points and be ready to note down answers.
3. Listening for detail – Listening to someone speaking and trying to get as much information as you can.
4. Listening for inferred meaning – Students guess the real meaning from what someone has said. The answer may not be as clear, so they are paying attention to cues.
5. Listening for attitude – Focusing on the tone and on some keywords, listeners try to work out the attitude or feelings of the speakers (e.g. whether they are sad or annoyed, bored or interested, etc.).