The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 was a collection of treaties that ended the chaotic religious warfare in Continental Europe (Backman, page 529). It led to several major long-term consequences, including rearrangements and new frameworks. Firstly, the Peace of Westphalia drastically changed the political map of Europe by splitting and combining lands and rearranging boundaries (Backman, page 530). The objective of this was to create a balance of power between the states in order to minimize future wars. The new map with new states allowed the creation of alliances, which further decreased tensions within the land.
In addition to this consequence, “the Westphalia treaties also reaffirmed the principle of religious establishment” (Backman, page 531). Rulers had the power to name the official religion of their state, which allowed freedom of religion to an extent and built up a relationship between the state and the church. Lastly, because the Peace of Westphalia rearranged boundaries of the states, many monarchs were left without rivals or enemies nearby (Backman, page 531). Consequently, the Peace caused a rise in absolutism. Rulers gained more power to maintain control over the common people.
In what ways was the eighteenth century a period of prosperity? And for whom?
The eighteenth century was a period of prosperity for for the upper class of Europe. According to Backman, “The end of the Thirty Years’ War… brought peace to once-warring states, freeing elites to concentrate instead on amassing wealth and power” (Backman, page 527). Aristocrats and elites of society enjoyed a variety of privileges and delights.
The eighteenth century was a period of prosperity for the wealthy in many ways. The elites of society lived extravagant and comfortable lifestyles, as they “enjoyed various rental incomes, judicial fees, annuities, ecclesiastical and governmental sinecures, and… exemption from paying taxes” (Backman, pages 527-528). Since it was the Baroque period, grand and ornate buildings and palaces popped up all over Europe (Backman, page 528). This further increased the power and luxuries of the privileged elites of Europe. So although there were tensions and conflicts occurring during the eighteenth century, the elites of society were definitely experiencing an unparalleled period of prosperity.
What were the causes of the English Civil War?
One main cause of the English Civil War was religion. There existed major conflicts, or “religious animosities,” between Catholics and Protestants at the time (Backman, page 557). Different groups had different views on religion and each group believed that their religion should dominate the rest. For example, Puritan views on religion differed greatly from the religious views of King Charles. These tensions built up over time and took part in triggering the civil war.
Another major cause of the English Civil War was a lack of money. King Charles led an expensive lifestyle that put a great amount of pressure on royal finances. It got to the point where, according to Backman, “Parliament passed a Petition for Right (1628) that denied the crown additional taxes and restricted the king’s judicial authority” (Backman, page 560). The problems caused by the lack of money also increased tensions between the Monarchy and Parliament. Cumulative clashes with Parliament, including Charles’s troops storming Parliament, all contributed to the beginning of the English Civil War (Backman, page 560).
Compare and contrast the philosophies of Rousseau and Voltaire.
Both Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire rejected the views of other philosophers. Both of these philosophers believed in freedom of the people. Rousseau believed that “Mankind is born free,” and Voltaire placed great emphasis on the freedom of speech (Backman, pages 596 and 598). Both men had traditional views of women. Rousseau’s “relations with women were generally a toxic mixture of sensual delight, emotional distrust, and intellectual disdain,” and Voltaire “never advocated for anything but traditional patriarchal society” (Backman, page 600).
Rousseau and Voltaire had many different views. Backman states, “Voltaire doubted the essential goodness of mankind” (Backman, page 594). He did not support optimistic views of society and insisted that people were fools. Meanwhile, Rousseau believed that humans were born good and were corrupted by society (Backman, page 598). Furthermore, Voltaire believed in freedom of religion and thought that the church had too much power (Backman, page 596).
What did the Enlightenment mean for Jews?
Because most people of the Enlightenment supported integration, to Jews the Enlightenment meant that they could be more welcomed into society. Acts of Toleration were passed that allowed constitutional rights to Jews in many European countries, including Britain, France, Spain, and Austria (Backman, page 607). Many writers of the Enlightenment period praised Jewish citizenship. For instance, German playwright Gotthold Lessing wrote a play, The Jews, that portrayed Jewish people as kind people with good morals (Backman, page 607).
However, people were still reluctant to fully integrate Jews, and prejudice against them was still very present. According to Backman, “Most of the Enlightened favored integration — that is, incorporating the Jews into society at least in terms of law and governance — but were opposed to outright assimilation… to anti-Semites, the Jews’ willingness to assimilate raised suspicions of their supposed desire to attack Christian society…” (Backman, page 606). As a result, even though laws were revised to include Jews, in many cases legislations were passed that placed restrictions and strict rules on Jewish people.