Introduction
Traditionally, law enforcement has been perceived as a male field, and not a place for women. Prior to the nineteenth century, it was argued by many that the police force and it’s job descriptions were completely unsuitable for women (Garcia, 2003). When women were beginning to enter the police force, they started out by working “female jobs”, such as guarding female inmates and guarding juvenile offenders, and doing social and clerical work. One of the first examples of this was in 1981 when the Chicago Police Department hired Marie Owens as a “patrolman”, even though her duties were working with women and children, and not patrolling (Smith, 2015).
The story of women in policing is constantly evolving. Police departments are discovering that female officers bring different abilities to the table, including a less confrontational style than that of their male partners, a lower likelihood of use of excessive force, the ability to exercise empathy and effectively diffuse difficult situations, and a larger field of awareness in stressful situations. Female law enforcement officers’ abilities tend to compliment those of their male counterparts, resulting in an investigative advantage. These advantages can advance the evolution of females in law enforcement, as well as benefit the entire profession (Smith, 2015).
This paper will aim to answer the question of why police agencies still struggle to hire and retain female officers, as well as if there is a need for gender diversity in policing. By reviewing topics such as: psychological differences between men and women, sexual harassment, gender bias, masculinity culture, female stress, public perception, and policing style, these questions will be answered and used to create policy recommendations for future police forces to use.
Psychological Differences Between Men and Women. Men and women have different moral development and female ethics are based on caring and are linked to the understanding of responsibilities and relations, whereas male ethics are based on justice and are connected to the understanding of rights and rules (Chen, 2015). Women care more about how others think because young girls develop a greater sense of empathy with others than boys do. Males fear intimacy because masculinity is often linked to toughness and independence. In relation to police officers it is believed that women’s emotions would affect their work performance due to females being more sympathetic, and female law enforcement officers decision-making processes are constrained by their sentimentality because they care about how others are affected by their decisions (Chen, 2015).
Sexual Harassment. Sexual harassment in the workplace was defined by Magley (1997) as “unwanted sex-related behavior at work that is appraised by the recipient as offensive, exceeding [one’s] resources, or threatening [one’s] well-being.” Sexual harassment is not just physical, but can involve comments, treatment in sexual nature, and any activity that is based on a person’s gender and makes the person feel uncomfortable (Shaw, 2000). Female police officers are generally viewed as more vulnerable to negative workplace outcomes than men, and women are also more likely to experience workplace problems following sexual coercion than other types of workplace injury (Goodman-Delahunty, Schuller, Martschuk, 2016).
Gender Bias. Oppressions based on gender and/or sexual orientation are intrinsically linked. These behaviors are based on a common root which sole focus is to maintain a patriarchal society that reinforces gender roles (Magley, 1997). Many people believe that there are specific duties for men, while others are for women. If a woman is doing something that is culturally believed to be for the other sex, it is seen as “incorrect behavior”. Gender biases are based on stereotypes where people are judged for their physical attributes, and are the basis for mistreatment of females in law enforcement (Shaw, 2000). Gender differences in society are socially constructed where men are assumed to be superior and stronger than women. Women are seen as weaker than men and require more help and protection from others. Females are also seen as nurturing, caring, and non-violent, which categorize women and confines them to work that requires emotion (Chen, 2015)
Masculinity Culture. Policing is marked by an assertive working culture, where police are seen as hard-bitten, cynical, and drawn to rigid in-group/out-group distinctions. The stereotyped cultural values of police may be seen as ‘hegemonic masculinity’, a society that legitimizes men’s dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of women, and other ways of being a man. They highlight (i) aggressive, physical action; (ii) a strong sense of competitiveness and preoccupation with the imagery of conflict; (iii) exaggerated heterosexual orientations, often articulated in terms of misogynistic and patriarchal attitudes towards women; and (iv) the operation of rigid in-group/out-group distinctions whose consequences are strongly exclusionary. The stereotype revolves around the physical resolution of direct, violent confrontations justified by notions of punishment (Fielding, 1994).
Female Stress. Thompson, Kirk, and Brown (2005) conducted a research study on stress in police women and how it can affect their family, as well as their entire careers. The occupational demands in the police force are so high that it almost acts as a limitation to women and their ability to advance. It showed that women reflect more stress in the workplace than men, and those who are interested in making families work are finding it especially hard to cope with the police force work. Their study showed that women are more socialized to familyhood and end up giving into the responsibilities of maintaining a family over the responsibilities of maintaining a career, which causes the low ranks of women in the police force. This is commonly used to abuse police women in their strive for senior level positions (Thompson, Kirk, and Brown, 2005). Some studies have shown that female law enforcement officers suffer more from external stressors such as negative public attitude, media, courts/criminal justice system, organizational stressors, task-related stressors, personal stressors, and female-related stressors (Chen, 2014).
Public Perception. A study was conducted to identify how the public perception of police affects the officer’s job and job satisfaction. The research showed that the public’s perception of officers does in fact influence the officers job satisfaction as well as delivery. The general perception of female law enforcement officers by the community was that they were less capable of the job of law enforcement than their male counterparts. This can dishearten the officers and cause them to do duties purely just to prove they can do them, and not just to fulfil their requirements. Female officers are esteemed for achieving a “man’s career”, but aren’t trusted as capable of handling it (Yim and Schafer, 2009)
Policing Style. Men tend to be more aggressive and dominant in the workplace and are more likely to be bold and express their opinions in the organization, while women are more likely to accept the police organizations policies and rules, regardless on whether or not they agree with them. Women follow the rules because they want to avoid conflict. When solving problems, men usually force themselves to choose the most correct answer, whereas women attempt to solve problems without hurting anyone. A male officer tends to care less about how other staff would be affected by their decisions because priority is given to rules that maintain a peaceful environment(Chen, 2015). Female law enforcement officers tend to use a service-oriented style of policing. This service-oriented style of policing reveals women as less likely to use excessive force, misconduct themselves, or becoming cynical toward citizens (Garcia, 2003).
Conclusion
Although female law enforcement officers are oppressed by the patriarchal police environment, the number of female law enforcement officers has increased, showing that women have the same amount of motivation as their male counterparts when they first join the police force. Since women have to deal with so many difficulties and barriers in regards to sexual harassment, gender bias, masculinity culture, stress, public perception, and policing style, women may just decide to leave the force, or not even attempt to join. Some women may not want to subject themselves to those kinds of hardships in addition to an already difficult job, and this could be why police departments struggle to hire and retain female officers.
The number of female police officers has increased significantly in recent years. Even though the number has increased, female officers still encounter many issues and barriers. Data shows that there is an increased amount of women who have joined the police force despite the fact that female officers are constantly exposed to more danger and stress than their male counterparts (Chen, 2015).
Policy Recommendations
Institute a written pregnancy policy. Pregnancy policies in police departments are unpredictable and unregulated. Some departments have one, and others don’t. Some departments require proof of pregnancy to the employer in the form of a letter from the pregnant officer’s physician. The department may temporarily transfer the officer to a less dangerous position during and after the pregnancy, but this is only if the transfer can be reasonably accommodated. Departments who don’t have a pregnancy policy may force the officer to take a temporary assignment out of pressure or culture within the department.
Pregnancy adds a lot of stress to both the officer and their force, because they worry about her health, the baby’s health, as well as if the pregnancy is affecting the officer’s ability to perform her regular duties. There is also the issue of exposure to firearms, lead or other chemicals, and loud noises which can affect the fetuses development.
Many women feel discriminated against during pregnancy on the force, but may not complain due to the fear of being labeled, meaning the discrimination goes unreported. By having a written pregnancy policy in all police departments, it can protect female law enforcement officers from discrimination and added stress from being pregnant and on the force. A written policy can also relieve the “unknown” when it comes to being pregnant while on the force, and can help the department run more smoothly. With a detailed and specific policy, the department can have a protocol on how to handle pregnant officers and can show support to its female officers (Connelly, 2011).
Utilize general fitness measures instead of physical fitness (strength) tests. Across police departments, there has been a distinct pattern among the physical abilities hiring standards. The physical ability hiring standard has shown to be higher than the physical ability post-hiring standard. An applicant may be physically fit when hired, but can deteriorate significantly once they are higher up on the force. Between 2005 and 2011, male physical ability test pass rates were 80% higher than those of the female physical ability test pass rates. These tests eliminate females from consideration at a significantly higher rate than males.
While physical fitness tests that focus on strength may have some validity in police departments, they don’t measure performance when compared to general fitness measures (Such as the Cooper Standards). Strength tests, which have a cutoff score, have a negative impact on the representation of women. By using general fitness standards instead of just strength based tests, an applicant’s overall physical ability to perform can be measured. Just because someone is physically strong, doesn’t mean they can withstand the many other physical requirements of being a police officer. Female applicants will have a better chance of proving their abilities and making it onto the force by utilizing all types of physical fitness, instead of just strength (Fields, 2012).
Adjust the Cooper Standards. The Cooper Standards are used to measure physical fitness in police departments. Many applicants will train for months before the test, which has raised the concern that the Cooper Standards don’t measure latent fitness, but measures how long and intensive the applicant’s training was prior to the exam. Because of this, it is possible to change the way the test is given to improve the number of applicants without sacrificing the quality of the applicants.
Some applicants may not be able to pass initially, but may be able to pass after training. Since some departments require applicants to pass at a certain level before entering the academy, it could turn away possible candidates who would be perfect for the job. What could be done is those who don’t initially get a high enough score could be given the opportunity to still enter the academy. These individuals have the ability to succeed, they just need a little bit more time to train. By giving those who score just under the amount required to enter the academy a chance to prove themselves, it opens the doors for potential candidates who have the physical fitness and motivation to become a law enforcement officer (Frequently).
Ensure that female officers are provided equal access to proper fitting uniforms. Female officers, regardless of rank, have been subject to discrimination, harassment, victimization, and the reinforcement of the stereotypical masculine traits within law enforcement. Since police work was conventionally masculine, the uniforms are tailored to represent the masculine portrayal of the police force. While there are options for male and female uniforms, the difference between them does nothing to disprove the defeminisation of police clothing. It is reported that current uniforms are not tailored for the female figure and are ill-fitting and uncomfortable for women.
Even though females make up a smaller percentage of law enforcement officers, it should go without saying that all officers should be given equal access to proper-fitting, and comfortable uniforms. By ensuring that all officers have fitted uniforms, it can prevent female officers from receiving scruiteny from their male counterparts and the public about doing a “man’s job”, and can ultimately make the officer more comfortable and confident in their duties (Rebac De Camargo, 2016). .