In a world where digital media has taken over the way in which people as a society communicated between them, it is inevitable that attention will be drawn towards it. The fastest growing social media application at the moment is Instagram. A picture-based sharing application where users create a profile account and express through images elements that they find of interest. People have been overwhelmed by this application and users appear to be fully dedicated to it. An empirical research project has been carried out investigating the ways in which young women today exploit the possibilities offered to them by Instagram. The theory of Social Identity that were first introduced in 1978 by Tajfel, as a way of accounting for the positioning one had as a social entity through group dynamics, was later further developed by Reid, Giles and Abrams to include the dynamics of media entertainment. The research that follows tests the theory, to see whether it is capable of further applying to digital social media. This theory is then developed to a further stage by exploring its fundamentals that suggest that for people to have a social identity they need to be motivated by self-esteem. The way in which to attain self-esteem is by gaining gratifications. For this purpose, Uses and Gratifications Theory is also developed. The gratifications that are offered through the Instagram platform are examined against the theory prototype. A group of 12 young women aged in their 20s or early 30s have been interviewed for the purpose of exploring how they use Instagram as a project of self-construction of attractiveness. Evidence supports that Instagram is a powerhouse, which empowers young women via the gratifications it offers and unleashes a plethora of possibilities in how these can be used in today’s society and have the potential capacity to transform it.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Internet has forever changed the way in which we perceive the world. Information is no longer provided to us only in a material form but exists in a non-material form through algorithms and can be moved at stupendous speeds from one place to another via electronic currents. The internet is responsible not only for offering us faster access to all kinds of information we may want or need, but for shifted the entire mould society had been built around up to the time of its creation. Of particular interest are the social media applications, which have developed over the years as technology keeps advancing.
For people to have access to the internet and social media applications they no longer need to be in the presence of a computer or laptop, but can do so at any given time through their mobile phones, iPods or iPads no matter where they might be at any point in time. This has resulted in a shift in the manner in which people now choose to communicate with each other, bringing social media platform applications to the foreground. The world has been swarmed by applications with the most popular of all being Instagram; an application that was first released on 6th October 2010. Instagram has the ability of offering substantial communication without the use of words being needed; simply via the use of images. Suddenly Instagram became relevant in all forms of expression, whether they be outdoor spaces, restaurants, lifestyle choices, communication with friends, or even work references. This is the phenomenon that initially grabbed my attention. With time this was combined with my observation that women pay meticulous attention to their looks and their image and have a notable stronger presence on Instagram use than men. Under closer attention I came to understand that Instagram was not only a platform that women enjoyed using on a social level, but it offered business opportunities and in certain cases a substantial income to the women using it; with the simplest example being Kim Kardashian. This was the initial point of inspiration for the research paper that follows.
It seems that social media have created a new set of rules for society to adhere to on a social level and like all changes in society these usually come with the rise of a certain minority and the overthrow of what had been known as the ruling power up to that point in time. Therefore, I became actively interested in exploring the ground surrounding this phenomenon. On an existentialist level it was quite easy to see how this has affected humans and society as a whole and the way in which they choose to communicate between each other. On another level, as a young woman myself, female rights are of great importance to me, therefore reflecting on how women have chosen to use this new tool society has to offer could not be overlooked. In this way I decided to explore what women perceive as attractive in our day and age and investigate the context of the images they upload on Instagram.
Through casual observation it appeared that women were managing to gain ground without even being aware of it. Thus, given the chance to explore this development on an empirical, methodological and academic level could shed light on otherwise unknown aspects of the power social media platforms may carry. In this way I concluded that I wanted to see to what extent young women are using Instagram as a means to self-construct a new perception of what is accepted as attractive. In what follows I have investigated the ways in which someone can form an identity through social media platforms and have explored what already exists as literature on this topic. Once this is established I explore how empowerment and self-validation can be responsible for expressing what is both superficially and substantially presented and accepted as attractive. In the section that follows I have selected the relevant literature, presenting both the ground it covers and also the ground it does not and how I shall later develop my research based on this.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A social media platform, such as Instagram, uses images as its main form of passing on information from its user who will upload an image to the audience or recipients who will be receiving this image. A lot of the images uploaded are either pictures of the user as a self-portrait, from this point onwards referred to as ‘selfie’, or of objects, locations and ideas in the form of an image, that reflects what the Instagram account owner perceives as ‘attractive’ and wants to share with the world, or at least the people she has selected to be following her account. In the literature that follows Social Theory of Identity is presented, as well as Uses and Gratifications Theory and notions of self-esteem and they are then linked to how they can give rise to a sense of empowerment for women through Instagram. By establishing the way in which a woman finds her social position through media, and then self identifies herself, it is possible to account for the reasons she feels gratified in using them and thus is in a position to attain empowerment. This is all being investigated in an attempt to respond soundly to the research question set: How do young women use Instagram as a project for self-construction of attractiveness?
In order to have an Instagram account, a profile needs to be created by the account holding user. In order to have a profile there needs to be a character, or a persona, which this profile is framed by. In other words, an identity needs to be established, then recognized and finally made public via Instagram.
2.1. Social Identity Theory
Tajfel first presented social Identity Theory in 1978, where he stated that understanding one’s social identity is being able to understand who one is as a person and having a clear image of oneself. In order to achieve this knowledge, it can be understood in terms of social belonging. Needless to say, there can be positive and negative aspects of social identity. However, one always strives to obtain the best possible rendition of oneself and in this way gains in terms of self-esteem (Trepte, 2006).
Social Identity Theory has been applied to media, in order to see whether people can find a social position within these terms. Reid, Giles and Abrams (2004) support that the media is responsible for many social beliefs that are held by a multitude of social groups, belonging to different social ranks, minorities or groups that appear to be in control and dominant of society’s norms. The media can also be responsible for setting society’s status quo and what people expect to see around them in real life. Reid, Giles and Abrams question whether the media can be the ground upon which social power structures are reflected, or might it even be responsible for possible social change, due to the power it processes (Reid, Giles, Abrams, 2004). By establishing that Social Identity Theory has been used in the past to explain social behaviour through the media, it gives ground for an investigation into whether it can be applied in social media platforms as well.
Morgan and Shannahan (1997) make reference to social power, by claiming that people who have power in society are not only able to create a difference through their own experience, but they are in a position to create experiences that have the ability to change cultural patterns and bring about cultural change in a material way. In this way Reid, Giles and Abrams (2004) respond that it is possible that the media has the power of affecting social groups and possibly leaving minority groups feeling even more inferior and the dominant social groups even more empowered. They further go on to say that there is the possibility that an inferior group may leave a television experience with a sense of group vitality if they are exposed to shows that provide them with identity gratifying images. This can also be the case if they are non-selective to identity gratifying shows, but allow themselves to be exposed to a plethora of visual stimuli (Reid, Giles, Abrams, 2004). By seeing how overexposure to visual stimuli and gaining gratification from it can lead to a sense of group vitality, it follows that it could also lead to a sense of individual vitality and rise of self-esteem.
We find further support in how exposure by media to new ideas can alter established social norms, by looking at the example of “Black is Beautiful”. This was first stated in public in the 1920s, however only became socially accepted 40 years later, when Stockley Carmichael launched it to the public (Hill, 1983). If this is true for public exposure and acceptance of social norms, social platforms such as Instagram hold fair ground on being in a possible position of power where they have the potential of changing social norms and what is perceived as attractive; whether that be a body-image or a lifestyle choice.
Abrams also supports the view that by being exposed to visual stimuli that are in agreement with one’s social identity, one finds acceptance and, as a result, empowerment (Abrams, 2003). Therefore it stands to reason that women who are exposed to Instagram images that support a new body image than what had been socially accepted as “ideal” in the past, or are exposed to the possibility that women are capable of being equal to men in business, will possibly accept this as a new social norm and as a result feel empowered.
This brings us to our next level of investigation. According to Abrams, Eveland and Giles (2003), the classical view of Social Identity Theory supports that an individual will have gratifications through the media no matter what social standing they come from. It is, thus, imperative to investigate what is entailed in Uses and Gratification Theory, for any media user.
2.2. Uses and Gratifications Theory
Katz developed what is known as the Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT), as a means of explaining the reasons why people will select a particular type of media. Depending on their choices, they will receive gratifications on an informational, social and leisure level. UGT works under the supposition that an audience will be directed towards a specific target in what they choose to view, whilst including these choices in their everyday life styles and therefore experience gratification to the optimal level. According to Phua, Jin and Kim (2017), media selections also contribute to an enhancement of the self; therefore, a clearer concept of self-identity.
In more recent times it was Harwood (1997), who drew attention to the fact that in its traditional use UGT calls that only individual needs of gratification are covered by specific media choices, where it might be the case that it has the ability to even cover the needs of social identity, and, in this way, an individual’s social identification and self-esteem are empowered. Harwood found that when he manipulated the television guide and included characters that were similar in age, social standing and general description to the participants in his experiment, the participants were much more likely to prefer to watch a show that was similar to their own identity (Harwood, 1997). This shows that gratification has a strong bond to how one perceives her own identity and how closely related it is to the society she links herself to.
UGT has since been applied to Social Networking Systems (SNS), and shows that not only can it be applied, but it has been developed to include more grounds of gratification.
Sheldon and Bryant (2016) have noted that gratifications now also include the possibility of expressing one’s opinion, gaining and having access to knowledge about other people and convenience. People might be inclined nowadays to use SNS as a means of meeting new people and enlarging their social circle, or to have access to online games as a form of entertainment, or even as Instagram offers the option of sharing pictures and images with other people(Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). Although UGT was initially used to explore gratifications via the television; these were: diversion from one’s personal problems, as a way of releasing emotion, as a form of personal identity and self-understanding and even surveillance; we see that by investigating its application on SNS, UGT is still in a position to cover the human need to interact on a social level with something that is in actual fact immaterial. What is to be investigated now is the power of images alone and the use of Instagram as source of gratification and self-validation.
According to Sheldon and Bryant, Marcus is one of the few who have carried out research about Instagram and has compared it to other SNS sites. What sets Instagram apart is the fact that it is more linked to personal identity rather than relational identity, as are most other SNS. Through the study of images posted on Instagram he came to the conclusion that Instagram is a platform that aids and encourages self-promotion. The platform is known for its often appearances of selfies, and selfies, which, according to Marcus, are the pinnacle of individuality. Yet, although Instagram might promote the individual and self-identity more, it does not exclude social interaction. By ‘hashtagging’ someone an automatic link is made between their account and the picture that has been uploaded. (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016).
The next step in the investigation is to establish how Instagram feeds its users gratifications as the ones mentioned above.
One way in which humans find self-validation is by being seen and heard by others and feeling that they are valued by them. To achieve this, they need to promote and expose themselves and in return hope to be accepted by the others. The need to belong transgresses material social boundaries and is expressed on Instagram by the number of followers one has. The more followers one has, the more popular one is seen as being. Further each account holder gains, further gratification by the amount of likes received for the posts that are uploaded. The more likes they receive the greater the sense of gratification (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). As a result, this online society has the ability to affect the users’ self-esteem and self-validation.
Finally, it needs to be noted that Instagram is a preferred social media platform due to its image-based set-up, as this offers greater gratification of use to its account holders. Pittman and Reich (2016) support this position when they state that due to modern day lifestyle and concerns of financial expenses and time management, people are much more likely to share a photograph of their experience than render a written expression of the experience. This is because images are sensory specific and offer direct gratification to the information received (Pittman & Reich, 2016).
As we have established, there is a chain bond between somebody’s social identity, the way in which they receive gratification and, consequently, their self-esteem.
2.3. Self-esteem
Vignoles, Manzi, Golledge and Scambini (2006), define identity as the way in which one sees oneself. However, identity includes the individual relationship, and the relationship within a group and how one represents oneself within such terms. Therefore, self-esteem is tightly bound with the concept we each have of our self. In their research they also established that there are six motivational goals that people aim towards in their attempt to construct their identity; meaning, a sense of belonging, efficacy, being able to be distinct, have a sense of continuity and a sense of self-esteem. Self-esteem they state is the motivation is person has to create and then maintain a positive perception of themselves. They also state that other research has shown that self-esteem increases by self-enhancement and self-improvement. Self-validation however is needed to maintain self-esteem. They further comment that self-esteem is tightly related to inter-social group relations, and a struggle to maintain it is always present whether it be within a social group or not (Vignoles, Manzi, Golledge, Scabini, 2006).
Now that the importance of self-esteem has been established in regards to an individual per se and within the group they move within, it is important in the research work that is to be proposed in the next chapter that it includes the participants’ need to establish a strong self-esteem, as it is their self-esteem that is to give rise to self-validation and empowerment, by establishing what they perceive as attractive on the SNS of Instagram.
Reid, Giles and Abrams (2004), make a appoint of expressing that the social identity approach relies a lot and encourages the thought that social change that arises through intergroup relations, has a lot to do with the struggle between the dominant and subordinate social group involved in any given social framework. They support that individual members of any social group do not have set and fixed ideas of identity and when groups change their relationship from a cooperative bond to a competitive one, this can by all means result in a change of social status quo, and social beliefs (Reid, Giles & Abrams, 2004).
It is this exact power struggle that is to be incorporated in the research that follows. The framework of the research is going to be based on an existential approach, searching to see whether Instagram offers the ground for a shift between the previously perceived dominant group and subordinate group. Further there shall be an investigation into the feminist ground that might be covered if it is established that women have had the ability to change what is perceived as attractive via the application.
It is important to establish an overview of existentialism in order to be aware of the overall approach this research paper is bound by.
2.4. Existentialism
Existentialism is a movement in philosophy and literature where the focus is on an individual and their existence, instead of trying to find common universal elements shared by all humans. Although the movement truly grew after the 2nd World War, advocates of it are seen from before. For the purposes of this paper there shall only be references to Sartre, since his ideas can transgress to SNS with apparent ease, to Hegel on a clearly existential front and to Simone de Beauvoir on an existential level but with focus on her feminist ideas. It is a natural extension that social platforms – especially Instagram – be seen through this scope since they are being used in today’s society as a way of expressing one’s individuality.
Most popular to make this school of thought known was probably Sartre and his two books Being and Nothingness and Nausea (Ed. Audi, 1999). Sartre very much believed in the human’s freedom and ability to recreate oneself. He also believed strongly that every person was directly responsible for what they made of themselves and their life. This can be seen as an approach Instagram users may employ, as they are in a position not only to define themselves but also to have the possibility to recreate themselves at any given time they choose via their profile account. Each person is seen as an individual who although might be bound by what they are in themselves, are always in a position to and have a duty to maintain their freedom and constantly create whom they wish to be (Ed. Audi, 1999).
Another thinker who has believed in human’s ability to redefine oneself is Simone de Beauvoir. She is probably of even greater interest because of her strong feminist views, which shall be explored in relation to media platforms a little further down. De Beauvoir used a categorization system that was very close to the one Sartre had created in regards to humans and their capacity for freedom. People, according to de Beauvoir, should not see themselves as having set qualities that cannot be changed. One needs to explore his possibilities and question his role in society and in which position he has been placed within it. Once again, the ultimate goal is to redefine oneself and the future that life holds for him (Ed. Audi, 1999).
Young adults today using Instagram have this very path of thought either on a subconscious or conscious level in the way in which they are using the platform. They can redefine their personality, their likes, their lifestyle and their social projection in any direction they please, since they are the editors of the images, which are to be uploaded. At the same time as creating their own identity they are also creating a social identity and, therefore, a social group.
De Beauvoir focuses strongly on the female element in her philosophy. This is seen when she expresses her views that women are not “made” but ultimately “become” and this is something that is moulded by society. It is later to be explored whether women have used Instagram in a way that might have contributed to the moulding and development of women in today’s society. This is to be seen by body image changes and by how women may have succeeded in changing the image of what is perceived today as attractive.
2.5 Backbone of feminism
In order to be in a position to see whether Instagram has had the potential to influence Feminism as a movement, it is paramount that its stages are explored at this point.
Feminism is a movement that has found expression through several forms. Its struggle is to ensure equal rights for women as those men have and to level out any inequalities that might exist due to gender. Although as women we take quite a few of the rights we own as granted, these have only come about in the past two centuries.
Feminism can roughly be described as having three different stages through time.
The first stage is what is known as suffragette activism that took place mostly in Britain and the United States of America. This was the first time when women took a forceful stance against the norms of society, in order to fight for equal rights in society. Mary Wollstonecraft can be seen as the first formal advocate of women’s rights with her book “A vindication of the Rights of Woman”. At the time it was written it was unheard of that a woman would express herself in such a way never mind have these ideas published for mass view (Ed. Audi, 1999). It was only in 1865 that John Stuart Mill, who had the support of other men on the issue too, addressed the issue of ‘female vote’. It was at the turn of the 19th century that Emmeline Pankhurst took a much more violent way in expressing women’s need for equality and equal rights. Women following her lead would chain themselves to railings, smash public windows and set fire to public property, all in a desperate attempt to draw attention to their cause. It was only after the end of WWI that women started being seen as truly able bodies, due to the fact that so many men were either away at war or had been killed and there was a great shortage in able hands to cover jobs in the factories. It was in 1928 that all women were finally given the right to vote in the UK (Chevalier, 2001). This set the path for feminists and only about 30 years later was society ready to take on yet another stage of feminism.
The second stage of feminism is mostly characterized by a social struggle for women. Yet it was never believed to exist as a problem outside of the political front. This stage’s greatest advocate is Simone de Beauvoir, a French existentialist who encouraged women to undergo an ethical revolution in her writing from her book ‘Le Deuxieme Sexe’. She believed that society has been built around male norms and that women had to conform to these norms without being able to establish or express what female norms might be, and this was detrimental to women being able to succeed within their own right. In her view the feminist movement only had a chance to evolve, if these norms could somehow be cast aside. At this time the majority of society saw women as child breeders and good housekeepers.
The third stage of feminism primarily dealt with all the weaknesses of the second; namely that the feminist movement had most only been dealt with up to that point in terms of upper middle-class white women. The main chasm within this stage itself is, on the one hand the view that there are inherent differences between the two sexes, and on the other hand the side that supports that the sexes themselves to do have any gender differences per se but have been conditioned into them by society (Chevalier, 2001).
Upon completing the research that is to follow, it shall be shown that there is reason to support that Instagram, is in a position to affect feminism in its future steps.
In the research that follows young women who use Instagram have been interviewed, in an attempt to establish the way in which they use the application. The literature review above supports the themes that are investigated in the research. It shall be proven whether young women find a social identity through the platform, as Social Identity Theory suggests, and, further, whether the application offers them gratifications in its use, using the Uses and Gratifications model as a guideline. Finally, self-esteem shall be investigated in terms of self-validation and empowerment. These two qualities shall be the terms to establish what young women use as a tool of self-constructing and what they perceive as attractive. Once this ground is covered, the thesis question: “How do young women use Instagram as a project for self-construction of attractiveness?”, will be addressed. Potentially this investigation could lead to further research of what other minority or subordinate groups could find ground of expression through SNS applications, and further research in how young women can use modern day technology to empower future generations. I believe this research has but highlighted the phenomenon of Instagram and the potential it has to transform society in a positive direction.