Introduction
Learning and Teaching are key components of education, which is why this work focuses on the various learning theory that facilitates the required outcome, it also focus on communication without which teaching and learning cannot take place.
Some learning theories requires the teacher to focus on the student, while other requires focus on the subject, others on outcome, in all the teacher need to understand the students so as to know which approach to use.
Communication either verbal or non-verbal must be understood most especially by teacher in other to make learning effective.
ANALYZE THEORIES, PRINCIPLES AND MODELS LEARNING
Many teaching methods irrespective of discipline have moved over the years from teacher-centered approaches where the teacher is seen as the source of all knowledge to approaches that are more learner-centered.
THEORIES
Learning theories as "conceptual frame works describing how knowledge is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning". Learning is influenced by emotion, environment and cognition.
‘There is nothing so practical as a good theory.’ (Kurt Lewin, 1951, p. 169) Theory guides decision-making.
The teachers use the understanding of various learning theories to decide which teaching approach they will use for the students in order for learning to be effective.
BEHAVIORISTS
Behaviorists define learning as a passive acquisition of knowledge through observation.
In behaviorism, knowledge is a collection of how we respond to environmental stimuli that depends on behavior. It is an action.
We can equate information transfer from the teacher to learner to the response of the learner to certain stimuli. Therefore "the point of education is to present the student with the appropriate repertoire of behavioral responses to specific stimuli and to reinforce those responses through an effective reinforcement schedule" (Skimer,B.F1976).
The behaviorists learn through consistent positive reinforcement and repetition of the study material. Constant positive reinforcement ensure that what is learnt is retained and not lost, as learner have tendency to change their behaviour.
Cognitive theory does not agree with learning as behavioral change but prefer to study the learner.
The behaviorist sees human activity objectively and disagrees with the concept that gives reference to feelings, attitudes, and consciousness as related to learning.
One can predict and control the human behaviour, the behaviorist theory can therefore be traced to philosophical theory of knowledge point.
Constructivist view learning as a factor of the learners previous Knowledge and what he previously understands,
Behaviorist concludes that learning is motivated by rewards and even punishment, while populist are driven by predicted and measurable outcomes.
COGNITIVIST
Cognitive theory defines learning "as a semi-permanent change in mental processes or associations’ (Hagler&Morris, 2015, p.18). It can also be called Cognitive development and it involves the way we think and acquire knowledge.
The cognitivist does not just respond to stimuli but processes every information received. There may be behavioral changes but they result from learners’ reasoning.
Learner is more involved in the learning process, seeking to understand the received information and relate it with previous knowledge. Cognitivism is directed from within (by internal process) unlike behaviorism which is determined by external circumstance. Therefore, cognitive approach to learning is centered on the learner’s mental processes. While behavioral changes gives insight to the learner's mental processes.
The theory can be applied in the classroom:
Allowing learners to link concepts, discussions,
Examples and applications of cognitive learning theory:
Prepare a structured lesson.
Problem solving, analogies etc.
Cognitivism involves examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence. Cognitivists examine, and possess problem solving skill, and are also intelligent.
The cognitive theory focuses on how acquired information is processed and how we respond to the information. It involves perception, attention, memory and thinking.
Cognitivist asks questions such as:
‘ How are problems solved?
‘ How are information processed and stored?
The cognitivist is problem focused and goal oriented, such student learn with a goal in mind. According to Fontana 1981, cognitive approach to learning includes:
To learn one must not restrict oneself to observable behavior, rather with the mental ability.
DESIGN-BASED
A range of analytical techniques, which balances the interpretivist paradigms and positivist paradigms, it tries to combine theory with practical in education. Methods of design based research targets to reveal the relationship between practice, designed artifact and theories of education. Design based research addresses learning issues such as;
‘ The nature of learning in context
‘ Learning as in a real world situations and not laboratory works
‘ Why it is essential to go beyond the narrow measures of learning
‘ Why it is essential to use formative evaluation in research findings
CONSTRUCTIVISM
"Every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience in which he is the center." (Carl R, 1969), in this context, the external world means the private world.
Constructivism theory is formed on the basis of observation and scientific study. Individuals through experiences are able to construct their own knowledge and understanding of the environment. Based on the constructivist theory learning is unique for each person. The theory sharpens the problem solving skill of learners.
However, learners must have basic knowledge upon which the new information will be processed and interpreted. Furthermore, outcomes in constructivism cannot be predicted as learner constructs their own knowledge, therefore when we need a consistent outcome, constructivism does not apply.
Constructivism can be applied through:
Case studies, research projects, Problem based learning, brainstorming, group work, etc.
Constructivists relate every new information gathered with previous ideas and experience, could result in changing their previous believe or could see new information as irrelevant and do away with it. The relevance of information is tested through social negotiation. It follows the concept that no knowledge is independent of the knower.
One of the basis for Constructivists theory is Vygotsky’s social development theory, where he states that ‘every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological)’ (Vygotsky,L.1978).
Constructivists view learning as a process related to constructing knowledge (personal and social) rather than gaining it. The knowledge is constructed on the basis of the learner’s personal experience, each person has different experience therefore interprets and construct knowledge differently.
Teachers must therefore focus more on the learner not on subject. They must give learners the chance to interact with sensory data and construct their own world.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
These are basic foundational principles for learning; they are compiled assessing different fields
‘ The prior knowledge of the students can hinder learning; the student every class with fragment of knowledge, beliefs and attitude of previous class, this knowledge can either be rich, accurate and timely or inaccurate and unappropriated this can be seen in their how they filter and interpret information.
‘ Learning and application of knowledge can be influence by how the student arrange their knowledge, fragment of knowledge are connect naturally by the student but this connection has to be accurate and relevantly organized else they will be unable to retrieve knowledge and apply it correctly.
‘ Motivation of the student will determine, direct and help to retain what they learn; students that have positive right value towards goals of learning will successfully achieve the expected learning outcome.
‘ Student must develop component skills to do complex task along with the organizing and integrating this skills in order to gain mastery.
‘ The quality of learning of student is affected by practice that is goal directed and feedbacks that are targeted
‘ The current level of the development of the student relate with the emotional, social and intellectual climate of the course of student for learning to be impacted.
‘ There is need for student continuously controls their approach to learning in order for them to become self-directed learners.
WAYS IN WHICH THEORIES, PRINCIPLES AND MODEL OF LEARNING CAN BE APPLIED TO TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT
Herbert Simon says ‘learning results from what the student does and thinks and only from what the student does and thinks. The teacher can advance learning only by influencing what the student does to learn.’
There are various ways in which we can apply learning theories, these application ensures holistic lesson. Learning theories are not for academic reading alone, they can be source of idea development, resources and schemes to boost student outcome and give teachers a more rewarding and interesting experience.
To know which strategy to apply, we need to consider the following:
‘ The learner's level of knowledge
‘ The thought processing demands
‘ The desired outcome
Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory (1983, 1993) theory submits that learners have seven types of intelligence which include linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, body-kinaesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Learner possess these intelligence in different amount, these are the ways by which students understand, identifying which one a student possesses more will help produce improved outcome and address the various need of students. For example; role plays, composing song or rap, news report, group debates etc. are ways to apply this theory
ANALYZE MODEL OF LEARNING PREFERENCE
Coffield et al (2004) defines Learning styles as ‘a range of competing and contested theories that aim to account for differences in individual’s learning’.
Learning preferences group people based on their learning style which shows that every individual has a preferred way of learning; this has overtime had great influence on education. Teachers should assess and identify students’ individual learning preference,
Learning styles are based on the following types of learning. These types are proposed by Walter burke barbe and colleagues, they are known as Learning modalities.
Auditory modality: has to do with learning by hearing spoken words.
Kinesthetic modality: learning by interaction
Visual modality: learning with the aid of images, mind maps, demonstrations and body language.
Individuals receive, process, and impart information differently
Because people have preferred ways of learning, much research has gone into discovering the different styles. Some models are based on personality types, while others are based on brain dominance.
Based Honey and Mumford learning style model, learners are grouped into 4, they include Activists, theorists, reflectors and pragmatists. This is also similar to Kolb’s.
Activist ‘ They learn by involving in various activity, however the effect their actions is considered after the action has been performed.
In terms of problem solving, activist prefers brain storming. The amount of time they spend on an activity depends of how exciting it is and how long it excites them, longer-term activity bores them, hence they easily move from one activity to the other. They involve with other people’s activity, hence make themselves centre of every activity.
Theorist ‘ they engage in gradual thinking, as they involve themselves in complex and logical theories. Reading, listening to lectures and making models are also part of their preferences.
Theorist like questioning, they ask questions such as
"Does it make sense?"
"How does this fit with that?"
"What are the basic assumptions?"
They solve problems by approaching it logically.
Reflector ‘ they involve in careful examination and observation from various perspective by gathering and analyzing data. After these do they make a decision.
Reflectors are always careful; they investigate properly before committing themselves. Cautious people and would start with investigation or observation before making any commitment.
These group of people are sometimes found taking backseats in meetings and discussions, this is not of want of what to say but due to their observant nature. However they make their own points after careful observation.
They are tolerant, keep a low profile appearance.
Pragmatist ‘ they apply what they have learnt overtime to problems to see if it can solve the problem. They are more involved in experimenting, preferring the laboratory, field work, and observation.
IDENTIFYING AND TAKING ACCOUNT OF LEARNERS INDIVIDUAL LEARNING PREFERENCE TEACHING ENABLE INCLUSIVE TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT
Having established that individuals have their own learning preference, we must understand that individuals are not stuck to one learning style. Cognitive differences do not determine learning preferences but they result from individuals' previous experience.
For instance, a student who was previously taught by a teacher who is not sound in explaining theory, such student may prefer having practical or field work. This shows that people are not necessarily a specific type of learner.
There are multisensory techniques educators apply in other to motivate students, this is based on the concept that learning is through all the senses. These includes combination of two or more sensory strategies namely visuals, auditory, tactile and kinaesthetic. They are majorly applied in learning language and literature like relating sound and symbol, word recognition, and so on. Teacher can use multisensory technique to teach spelling, reading and handwriting at once.
Conclusion
This study has assessed the characteristics of the strength and weakness patterns of the student in processing and in the retrieval of information. There are different learning styles and the preferences of every student differ, showing that in every class is a mix of variety of learning preferences. Some students cannot remember any new information without writing it down first, some process information best when they hear it while some at best when they are presented with pictures and may others show different learning preferences of the students.