CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The inflammation is a biological complex response of the vascular tissue towards the harmful stimuli caused by pathogens, damaged cells as well as the irritants. The role of the inflammation in pain is directly straightforward as it accompanied by pain. The chemicals from the body white blood cells will released into the blood or the affected tissues to protect the body from any foreign substances when the inflammation occurs. The release of chemicals thus increases the blood flow to the area of injury or infection which the resulting in redness and warmth. The inflammation is normally acute as it begins as the body start to fight the antigens and ends when the immune system stops producing the chemicals. The chronic inflammation whereby the body continues to produce the chemicals that causes inflammation. (Gollapalli et al, 2012).
Figure 1.1: The inflammation process
The cyclooxygenase pathway of arachidonic acid metabolism which produces prostaglandins are potentially inhibited by the most of the anti inflammatory drugs. Cyclooxygenase is an enzyme that responsible for the production of prostaglandins will be divided into three stage such as COX-1 and COX-2 as well as Lipooxygenase. Prostaglandins which created from common precursor molecule cyclooxygenase actually is a key hormones that used to carry local messages, deliver and strengthen pain signals as well as induce inflammation. Thus, the anti inflammatory agents are needed to treat inflammatory disease which leads to the utilization of herbal plants extract to possess anti-inflammatory activity. The herbal medicine from the herbal plants apparently used widely by the community in order to treat mild and chronic ailments. Plants have been popular sources of drugs that many of the currently available drugs that exist in the market is actually derived from the herbal plants extracts (P. Dasgupta et al, 2013).
Figure 1.2: The arachidonic acid metabolism in inflammation
The modern allopathic system, which has developed many costly diagnostic and sophisticated methodologies that at the times have made it quite outrageous and beyond the reach of human being. Nowadays, many modern synthetic drugs may harm more than they help in curing the diseases by its serious effects. Presently, the examples of drugs such as narcotics drugs like opioids as well as non-narcotics drugs with hydrocortisone are widely used for the management of inflammatory and pain conditions. All of these drugs are well known for its toxic and side effects. It is clearly stated that these group of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs produce intestinal tract ulcers with the potential of internal bleeding due to the long-term used. In contrast, the traditional medicines that make use of plants are much more favoured in terms of being safer without harmful effects which then comparatively less expensive than many allopathic medicines that available in the market.
The Averrhoa carambola L or locally known as star fruit actually is a product from the Carambola tree under the Oxalidaceae family is one of the herbal plants that have ability to treat mild and chronic ailments. The fruit mainly found in Brazil, Australia, Southeast Asia including Malaysia. Generally, the Averrhoa carambola L fruits are green when small and unripe. When the fruit matured and ripe, it will turn to yellow or orange in colour. The fruits are crunchy, having a crisp texture and when cut in a cross-section are star shaped that resembles its name. The flesh is light yellow to yellow, translucent and very juicy without fiber. The odour of the fruits resembles oxalic acid and their taste varies from very sour to mild sweet or sweet.
PLANT PROFILE
Figure 1.3: The Averrhoa carambola L fruit
Scientific name Averrhoa carambola L
Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Tracheobionta
Superdivision Spermatophyta
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Magnoliopsida
Subclass Rosidae
Order Geraniales
Family Oxalidaceae
Genus Averrhoa Adans
Species carambola
Table 1.1: Taxonomical Classification of Averrhoa carambola L
Sanskrit Karmaranga
English Starfruit or Chinese Gooseberry
Hindi Kamrakh or Karmal
Malay Belimbing
Tamil Thambaratham or Tamarattai
Filipino Balimbing or saranate
Indonesian Belimbing
Gujarati Kamrakh
Table 1.2: The Different Vernacular names of Averrhoa carambola L
The Averrhoa carambola L are available in September and October and again in December and January in India. The Averrhoa carambolas L in Malaysia, they are produced all the year but some of the trees have fruited heavily in November and December and again in March and April. There may even be three crops. The weather conditions account for much of the seasonal variability. The fruits naturally fall to the ground when fully ripe. The fruits should be hand-picked while pale-green with just a touch of yellow for marketing and shipping purposes.
A survey of literature revealed that the anti-inflammatory activity of this plant has an immense of its ethnomedicinal value. The properties of Averrhoa carambola L fruits have been accredites based on the present of its tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, fixed oils and fats as well as saponins. (Biswa et al, 2012). The previous research was found some of the ability of the Averrhoa carambola L show the effectiveness to act as analgesic, anthelminthic, hypotensive, anti ulcer, anti microbial as well as antioxidants by using the leaves, bark, fruit and stem extracts part due to the possible isolation of active phytoconstituents that present such as flavonoid, saponins as well as tannins inside the Averrhoa carambola L. (P.Dasgupta et al, 2013). The Averrhoa carambola L have the ability to treat mild and chronic ailments due to the present of the active phytoconstituents that responsible for the existence of the activity as mentioned (Farizka et al, 2015).
Some of the phytochemical studies have recorded but still it needs to be more progressed. The further investigations are needed to explore every possibility of individual bioactive compounds which responsible for the mode of actions as well as the pharmacological effects. However, there are still less information is available regarding the phytoanalytical studies, clinical study together with the toxicity study of this plant. The availability of primary information can be carried out such as clinical trials, phytoanalytical studies, toxicity evaluation and safety assessments for the further studies. Moreover, the plant is still under the pre clinically evaluated to other some extent. In addition, if these profess are clinically and scientifically assessed then it can continuously provide good remedies and help mankind in order to treat various ailments.
Plants have played a significant role in human health care since the ancient times. Traditional plants exerts great role in discovery of new drugs. Majority of human population worldwide is getting affected by inflammation related disorders. The herbal medicines work in a way that depends on an orchestral approach unlike the modern allopathic drugs which are single active components that target one specific pathway. There are few of plants that showed as source of anti-inflammatory. The medicinal plants have been used widely as crude material and source of wide variety of biologically active compounds for many centuries or as pure compounds for treating various disease conditions as well as play an important role in the development of potent therapeutic agents.
The plants that showed the anti-inflammatory potential such as Achillea millefolium L which is a perennial herb native to Europe and highly recognized in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory properties. The plant has been traditionally used externally for treatment of wounds, burns, swollen and irritated skin. The studies have shown two classes of secondary metabolites such as phenolics and isoprenoids that contribute mainly to the anti-inflammatory properties. The topical anti-inflammatory activity of the sesquiterpenes is caused by inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism. The crude plant extract and the flavonoids inhibit human neutrophil elastase as well as the matrix metalloproteinases, which are associated with anti-inflammatory process in vitro studies (Benedek B et al, 2007)
The another plants that showed anti-inflammatory potential is Aconitum heterophyllum which is commonly known as Ativisha in Ayurveda. It is widely used for the treatment of diseases of nervous system, rheumatism, digestive system as well as fever. The ethanolic extract of root of Aconitum heterophyllum contains alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and sterols. It has been reported that plants with these chemical classes of compounds possess potent anti-inflammatory effects through inhibition of prostaglandin pathways. The administration of Aconitum heterophyllum extract has been observed to inhibit the weight of wet cotton pellet in a dose dependent manner while the higher dose of the plant exhibited inhibition of inflammation very close to the inhibitory effect of diclofenac sodium. It has been reported that ethanolic root extract of Aconitum heterophyllum has potential to inhibit the sub-acute inflammation by interruption of the arachidonic acid metabolism (Santosh Verma et al, 2010)
In conjunction with the anti-inflammatory potential, the Adhatoda vasica L is an indigenous herb belonging to family Acanthaceae and the plant has been used in the indigenous system of medicine in worldwide as herbal remedy for treating cold, whooping cough, chronic bronchitis, cough, asthma, sedative expectorant, antispasmodic, anthelmintic as well as rheumatic painful inflammatory swellings. The drug is employed in different forms such as fresh juice, decoction, infusion and powder. It is also given as alcoholic extract and liquid extract or syrup. This plant contains alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, sugars, tannins as well as the glycosides. (Prajapati ND et al, 2003) The anti-inflammatory potential of ethanolic extract has been determined by using carrageenan-induced paw edema assay together with the formalin-induced paw edema assay in albino rats. The ethanolic extract of Adhatoda vasica L produced dose dependent inhibition of the carrageenan and formalin-induced paw edema (Wahid A Mulla et al, 2010)
The Lycopodium clavatum commonly known as club moss has been reported to be used in the wound healing effect. The four extracts prepared with ethyl acetate, chloroform, petroleum ether and methanol as well as the alkaloidal fraction from the aerial parts of the Lycopodium clavatum helped increase in capillary permeability assessment using the acetic acid induced method in mice. The only chloroform extract and the alkaloid fraction displayed as marked anti-inflammatory effect as compared to the Indomethacin as standard drug (Orhan I et al., 2007)
In addition of the anti-inflammatory potential activity, Ricinus communis Linn found almost everywhere in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activities of the methanolic extract of Ricinus communis root was studied in Wistar albino rats. The methanolic extract exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced hind paw edema model. The methanolic extract showed significant free radical scavenging activity by inhibiting lipid peroxidation while the observed pharmacological activity may be due to the presence of phytochemicals like alkaloids, flavonoids and tannins in the plant extract (Ilavarasan R et al, 2006)
The Cassia fistula tree is one of the example for anti-inflammatory plant that most widespread in the forests of India. The whole plant dominated medicinal properties which useful in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, rheumatism, skin diseases, anorexia and jaundice as well. The Cassia fistula bark extracts exhibited the significant anti-inflammatory effect in the acute as well as in the chronic anti-inflammatory model of inflammation in rats itself. The Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generated are associated with the pathogenesis of various diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes and aging process. The ROS play an important role in pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases whereby the flavonoids and bio-flavonoids are main constituents that responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of Cassia fistula itself (Venkataraman S et al, 2005)
The leaves and bark of Thespesia populnea are used to produce oil for the treatment of fracture wounds and as an anti-inflammatory. The poultice applied to ulcers and boils mostly in the southern India and Sri Lanka. The ethanolic extract of Thespesia populnea shows the significant anti-inflammatory activity in both acute and chronic models. The phytochemical studies indicated that the ethanolic extract of bark contains alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, tannins, phenols, flavonoids, saponins and terpenes (Vasudevan M et al, 2007)
The outcome of the results for Averrhoa carambola L for other pharmacological activities are very encouraging and indicate that this plant should be studied more extensively to confirm the reproducibility of these results as well as to reveal other potential therapeutic effects. The previous research investigated the potential anti inflammatory properties only for the leaves part of Averrhoa carambola L. By keeping this in view, the main objectives of the present study is to study the in vivo anti inflammatory activity of Averrhoa carambola L ethanolic fruit extract to put forward a scope to develop an effective drug for the treatment of related diseases as the treatments currently available for treating inflammation are not well tolerated and are often ineffective. Apart from that, this new research basically is to find a new source of anti inflammatory activity of Averrhoa carambola L ethanolic fruit extract which is effective, efficient and has a safer toxicity profile.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Cabrini et al., (2010) reported that the ethanolic extracts from Averrhoa carambola L leaf together with its ethyl acetate, hexane and butanol fractions as well as two isolated flavonoids which are useful in cellular migration and reducing croton oil induced ear edema in mice has been reported. The results for traditional use of this Averrhoa carambola L for skin inflammatory disorders have been justified.
Chang et al., (2000) investigated that the intoxication of Averrhoa carambola L based on the 20 patients. The 19 patients were suffered from uremic hemodialysis whether last one patients having advanced chronic renal failure without dialysis. Based on their report, eight patients did not survive despite haemodialysis intervention including the patient with advanced chronic renal failure. There is no report of Averrhoa carambola L fruit toxicity towards the patient with normal renal function. In contrast, the consumption of Averrhoa carambola L fruit will cause high mortality even after dialysis with renal failure patients.
Neto et al., (1998) reported that six of the uremic patients in a dialysis program who were apparently intoxicated after ingestion of 2-3 fruits which an equivalent of 150-200 ml of the fruit juice. The six patients developed a variety of manifestation that ranged from hiccups, nausea, agitation, insomnia and mental confusion. Apparently one case of death due to hypotension and seizure. Beside that, he also investigated to characterize the hypothetical neurotoxin in the fruit, an extract when injected in rats which then provoked the persistent convulsions.
Shui G et al., (2004) investigated that the polyphenolic antioxidants that present in the juice and the residue extract of Averrhoa carambola L fruit was analyzed by using the liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy. The mainly antioxidants which are attributed to the phenolic compounds characterized as epicatechin, L ascorbic acid, gallic acid as well as proanthocyanidins. The higher antioxidants activity was found much higher than the extracted juice in the Averrhoa carambola L residue.
Carolina et al., (2005) conducted a study in chromatographic isolation of the convulsant fraction from the aqueous extract of the Averrhoa carambola L. The effects of the neurotoxin fraction AcTx that given to experimental animals such as rats and mice showed behavioral changes acting on Gamino butyric acid or known as GABA receptors. The excitatory neurotoxins probably GABAergicantagonist which may be responsible for seizures in renal patients and animal models.
Narain et al, (2001) reported the composition of the Averrhoa carambola L fruits during maturation, the pH of the fruit increased together with the advance in maturity whereby the pH values were 3.44, 2.71 and 2.40 for ripe, half-ripe fruits and green mature fruits respectively. The increased in calcium contents were observed at the ripe stage (4.83 + 0.27 mg/100 g of edible fruit) and it was significantly different than the fruits in green mature (3.55 + 0.85 mg/100 g of edible fruit) or half-ripe stages (4.83 + 0.27 mg/100g of edible fruit). The titrable acidity, reducing sugars and tannins contents of the fruits vary significantly among the fruits at the different stages of maturity.
Sripanidkulchai B et al., (2002) reported that the Averrhoa carambola L stem was found to exhibited the antibacterial activity through the process by inhibiting the Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella sp as reported. The minimal bactericidal concentrations or known as MBC gives out the value of 15.62 mg/ml and 125 mg/ml respectively as indicated.
Mia Masum Md et al., (2007) investigated that the methanolic extract and its carbon tetrachloride, petroleum ether,chloroform and as well as the Averrhoa carambola L aqueous soluble fractions of its bark part was found to inhibited the growth of the various positive and negative gram of bacteria.
Herderich et al., (1992) indicated the identifications of glycosidically bound constituents from star fruit or known as Averrhoa carambola L using HRGC and HRGC-MS techniques. The constituents were obtained from the extracts by the Amberlite XAD-2 adsorption followed by methanol elution. The compounds identified were the ionone derivatives, namely 4-hydroxy-β-ionol, 3- hydroxy-β-ionol, 4-oxo-β-ionol, 3-hydroxy-β-ionone, 3-oxo-α-ionol, 3-oxo-retro-α-ionol (2 isomers), 3-oxo- 4,5-dihydro-α-ionol, 3-oxo-7,8-dihydro-α-ionol (blumenol C), 3,5-dihydroxy-megastigma-6,7-diene-9- one (grasshopper ketone), 3-hydroxy-β-damascone, 3- hydroxy-5,6-epoxy-β-ionone, 3-hydroxy-5,6-epoxy-β- ionol, 3,4-dihydro-3-hydroxyactinidol, vomifoliol (blumenol A), 4,5-dihydrovomifoliol and 7,8- dihydrovomifoliol (Blumenol B). The several of these new constituents are easily degraded upon heat-treatment at natural pH condition of the fruit pulp that lead to the rationalizing the formation of a number of C13-aroma compound which have recently been reported as star fruit volatiles as well.
Shah et al., (2011) reported that the Averrhoa carambola L leaves aqueous extract was reported the anthelmintic assay at the various concentrations such as 10 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml as well as 100 mg/ml using albendazole as the reference standard. The Averrhoa carambola L leaves was found to showed in a significant anthelminthic activity in dose dependent manner.
Ahmed et al., (2012) stated that the Averrhoa carambola L fruits showed analgesic ativity by writhing test and radiant heat tail flick test. The results was found that the Averrhoa carambola L exhibited the significant peripheral and central analgesic in the acetic acid induced writhing model in Swiss Albino mice at the doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg which then showed inhibition of writhing of 37.13% and 42.76% respectively.
Genasekara LCA et al., (2011) reported that the hypoglycemic of Averrhoa carambola L ripe fruit pulp significantly decreased the blood glucose levels through the treatment of 8 weeks which was conducted in a healthy Sprague dawley male rats and normal rats. The treatment showed decreased blood glucose level in Sprague dawley male rats compared to that normal rats.
The World health Organisation (WHO), (2003) estimates that about 80% of the population that living in the developing countries relies almost exclusively on the traditional medicine as for their primary healthcare needs. WHO has listed over that there are 21000 plant species used around the world for medicinal purposes. There are about 2500 plant species belonging to more than 100 genera are being used in indigenous systems of medicine in India.
Kupeli et al., (2007) stated that the Daphne pontica Linn consisted of flavonoids constituents like daphnodorins were isolated from the roots of which was reported to have anti tumour activity. Several of Daphne species have been used against inflammatory disorders. The Daphne pontica have been used widely for the treatment of rheumatic pain as well as inflammatory ailments. The extracts inhibits the production of prostaglandin as well as interleukin for inflammation purposes.
Chau et al., (2004) stated that the Averrhoa carambola L possessed the potential hypoglycemic effects due to the presence of several insoluble fibers rich fractions including insoluble dietary fibers, water insoluble solid as well as alcohol insoluble solid which isolated from the pomace of the fruit itself. The fibers rich fractions helps to absorb glucose, reduce amylase activity and delayed the release of glucose from the starch. The fibers rich fraction implied that they might help in controlling post prandial glucose.
Sen T et al., (1991) stated that the anti-inflammatory activity of the methanolic fraction of a chloroform extract of Pluchea indica roots was investigated and evaluated. The extract showed significant inhibitory activity against carrageenan, serotonin, hyaluronidase, histamine and sodium urate which induced the pedal inflammation as well as inhibited carrageenan induced paw edema and cotton pellet induced granuloma formation.
Soncini R et al., (2011) reported that the hypotensive effects for aqueous extract Averrhoa carambola L leaves and was found underlying mechanisms in the isolated aorta of rat. The effects of the Averrhoa carambola L in aqueous extracts shown on the mean arterial pressure which was conducted in vivo of the anesthesized rats. The study showed that the aqueous extract of Averrhoa carambola L leaves induced the dose dependent hypotension in normotensive rats up to 12.5 – 50.0 mg/kg which administered intravenously.
Zhang et al., (2007) stated that the Averrhoa carambola L juice in Human Liver Microsomes shown an inhibitory effects towards the seven CYP isoforms namely the CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2D6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2E1 as well as CYP2A6. Among all the seven CYP stated, it was found that the CYP2A6 was highly inhibited than other isoforms by the Averrhoa carambola L itself.
Goncalves ST et al., (2006) reported that the Averrhoa carambola L leaves have the potential to act as anti ulcerogenic. It showed that the water alcohol extracts of Averrhoa carambola L leaves gives the significant as well as dose dependent anti ulcer effects against gastric mucosa injury which induced by ethanol acid up to 400 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg and 1200 mg/kg but the the protective action was produced at the highest doses. The partial anti ulcer activity could be done due to the Averrhoa carambola L extracts contains of mucilage, triterpenoids and flavonoids as well.
Vasoconcelos et al., (2006) stated that the Averrhoa carambola L leaves extracts urged some changes in electrophysioogical in a normal guinea pig heart. The extracts induced many kinds of atrio ventricular blocks, increased the QT interval, depressed the cardiac rate as well as increased the QRS complex duration in six rats.
Muir CK et al., (1980) reported the toxicity on Averrhoa carambola L fruit extracts. The extracts produced convulsions when injected into the peritoneal cavity up to the exceeding dose which is 8 g/kg.
Li et al., (2012) studied the biotransformation of dihydro-epi-deoxyarteannuin B by using suspension-cultured cells of Averrhoa carambola L. One novel sesquiterpene, 7α-hydroxy-dihydro-epideoxyarte-annuin B, and one known sesquiterpene, 3-α-hydroxy-dihydro-epideoxyarteannuin B, were obtained upon the addition of dihydro-epi-deoxyarteannuin B. The study concluded that cultured cells of Averrhoa carambola L have the capacity to hydroxylate sesquiterpene compounds in a region and stereoselective manner. The inhibitory effects of 7α-hydroxy-dihydro-epideoxyarteannuin B and 3-α-hydroxy-dihydro-epideoxyarteannuin B on proliferation of K562 and HeLa cell lines were (59.29±0.99, 84.04±0.27 μmol/mL) and (40.63±1.45, 41.54±0.82 μmol/mL) respectively.
Rao YK et al., (2006) reported on his studies that the four compounds of Phyllanthus polyphyllus Linn consists of one benzenoid and three arylnaphalide lignans which isolated from the whole plant showed growth inhibitory effect on production of NO and cytokines (TNF-α and IL-12). Since TNF-α and IL-12 were known as the main a pro-inflammatory cytokines secreted that during the early phase of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases for example asthma, rheumatoid arthritis and septic shock. The use of Phyllanthus polyphyllus Linn as anti-inflammatory remedy in traditional medicine may be attributed by benzenoid and arylnaphalide lignans compounds.
Silva et al., (2008) indicated that the anti-inflammatory potential of leaves of hydroalcholoc extract of Piper ovatum was evaluated and investigated. Whereby the carrageenan-induced pleurisy in rats and croton oil-induced ear edema in mice were used as a model. The results indicate that the amide fractions piperlonguminine and piperovatine showed the greatest inhibitory activity of topical inflammation induced by croton oil method.
Chen L et al., (2008) highlighted that the fruit rinds of Garcinia mangostana have been used as a traditional medicine for the treatment of skin infections and trauma. The xanthones, α- and γ-mangostins are major bioactive componds which found in the fruit hulls of mangosteen. The xanthones exhibits their biological effects by blocking inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). It was stated also that two mangostins decrease prostaglandins (PGE2) levels through the inhibition of COX-2 activity and NO production. It is concluded that α-mangostin shows a more potent inhibition of PGE2 release than either histamine or serotonin.
Macready., (2012) stated that the flavonoids best known for their antioxidant as well as anti inflammatory. Beside that it is also helps to support of the cardiovascular and nervous systems. The previous research on flavonoids showed that it helps to block the production of messaging molecules that promotes inflammation. The activity of flavonoids was able to inhibits the enzymes of lipooxygenase (LOX) and cyclooxygenase (COX) in medical terms.
Chandra S et al., (1995) investigated that the ethanolic root extract of Swertia chirata have the potential especially for the pharmacological screening of anti-inflammatory activities conducted in animal models. The anti-inflammatory activity was using the carrageenan induced rat paw edema model which then taken rat paw edema model induced by carrageenan. The result revealed that the extract was found to reduce significantly (p <0.001). The formation of edema at the 400 mg/kg dose level and showed 57.81% (p <0.001) inhibition of edema volume at the end of 3rd hour which resulting the ethanolic extract of Swertia chirata helped to reduced the inflammation.
Kumar et al., (2013) reported that the various parts of Averrhoa carambola L used as a folk remedy for many symptoms including inflammation. The properties of Averrhoa carambola L fruits accredited with tannins, flavonoids and saponins which showed significant pharmacological activities. So it is necessary to perform further investigation to isolate the pharmacological active compounds that can be used in the production of novel drugs for various types of diseases.
Orwa et al., (2009) investigated that the Malaysians take fresh leaves of Averrhoa carambola L or fermented as a treatment for venereal diseases. A leaf decoction was taken to relieve the rectal inflammation. The fruits itself used to treat coughs, biliousness and beri-beri. The syrup that prepared from the fruits itself helps to alleviate internal haemorrhoids.
Margen et al., 1992 reported that the star fruit, Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae) is found in America, Brazil, Australia, South-East Asia including Malaysia, Southern China, Taiwan and India. A. carambola tree is usually measured up from 3 to 5 m in height and can reach until a maximum height of 10 m with a finely fissured light brown bark and 15 to 20 cm long leaves. It holds up large indehiscent yellowish-green berry fruit of 5 to 8 cm long along with a characteristic shape resembling a five pointed star whereby each cell of the fruit contains five arillate seeds.
Gidwani BK et al, (2009) investigated the aerial parts of many species of Lantanaare camara Linn widely used in folk remedies like cancer and tumours. A tea prepared from leaves and flowers were taken against fever, stomachache as well as influenza. The other uses of plant shows antimalarial, anti-bacterial and anti-diarrhoeal activities. From the studies it has been reported that the aqueous extract of Lantana camara leaves is highly effective and safe for the treatment of hemorrhoids. It has been reported also that the aqueous extract of Lantana camara leaves has promising analgesic, anti-inflammatory and also anti-hemorrhoidal activities.
Martin et al, (1993) stated that the first toxic effects for Averrhoa carambola L to human in a case study whereby an intractable hiccup happened to eight patients with regular programme of haemodialysis after the ingestion of the fruits. Apparently after the ingestion of Averrhoa carambola L fruit, the hiccups that occurring in patients with dialysis had not seen a threat until 1998.
Ferreira et al, (2008) stated that the effects of the hydroalcoholic extracts of the leaves of Averrhoa carambola L on fasting blood glucose. The hydroalcoholic extracts treated animals showed significantly lower fasting blood glucose while the livers from hydroalcoholic extracts showed higher glucose production from L-alanine. The hydroalcoholic extracts tretamnet did not affect the glucose uptake in soleus muscles which inferred by the incorporation og glucose to glycogen and lactate production. Hence, the study suggests that the declined of fasting blood glucose promoted by the treatment with the hydroalcoholic extract of Averrhoa carambola L was not mediated by an inhibition of the hepatic gluconeogenesis or with an increased of glucose uptake by muscles.
Asmawi MZ et al., (1993) revised that the Emblica officinalis has been used widely for the anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities. The anti-inflammatory activity was found in the water fraction of methanol extract of plant leaves. The effects of fraction were tested on the synthesis of mediators of inflammation such as leukotriene B4, platelet activating factor (PAF) and thromboxane as well. The water fraction of methanol extract inhibited migration of human PMNs in relatively at the very low concentrations.
Luximon-Ramma et al, (2003) reviewed that the antioxidant activities of Averrhoa carambola L were found to have strong correlations between antioxidant activity and total phenolics and proanthocyanidins contents. The flavonoids was seemed to contribute less to the antioxidant potential of the fruit and very poor correlation was observed between ascorbate content as well as antioxidant activity. The antioxidant capacity of the fruit was concluded to be a substantial source of phenolic antioxidants that may exhibit the potent health benefits.
Balasubramaniam et al., (2005) studied the isolated β- Galactosidase (EC. 3.2.1.23) from Averrhoa carambola L fruit and fractionated it using a combination of ion exchange and gel filtration chromatography into four isoforms, β-Galactosidase I, II, III and IV. The β- galactosidases exhibited the molecular weights 84, 77, 58 and 130 kDa, respectively. β-Galactosidase I, was the most prominent isoform. The purified β- galactosidase I was highly active in hydrolyzing (1 → 4) β-linked spruce and a mixture of (1 → 3)β- and (1 → 6) β-linked gum arabic galactans. The β- galactosidase I also exhibited the capacity to depolymerize and solubilize structurally intact pectins as well as to modify alkaline-soluble hemicelluloses whereby indicating in part changes that occur during ripening.
Chavan M et al., (2009) investigated the caryophyllene oxide which was isolated from an unsaponified petroleum ether extract of the bark of the Annona squamosal plant and has been studied for its anti-inflammatory effect activity. The dose taken of Caryophyllene oxide of 12.5 and 25mg/kg body weight while unsaponified petroleum ether extract at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight. The responsible activities of caryophyllene oxide were given significant effect against the inflammation
Wu et al, (2009) reported that the potential hypocholesterolemic activity of the different insoluble fibers that prepared from Averrhoa carambola L with or without micronization processing. After the micronozation, the cation-exchange and water holding capacities of the Averrhoa carambola L pectic polysaccharide-rich insoluble fibers were effectively increased from 8.5 to 22.4 mL/g. The Averrhoa carambola L microsized the insoluble fibers which then reduced the concentrations of serum triglyceride by and the total cholesterol with the value of 15.6% and 15.7% respectively by means of enhancing the excretion of cholesterol and bile acids in faeces. The study suggests a new approach of micronization of the fruits which may help to improve physiological functions of food fibers in the fiber-rich functional food application.
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