The influences of snacking on health have been widely deliberated. In 2012, Kim et al. revealed that skipping meals and choosing to snack is a growing culture among students and this can lead to poor nutrition. Evidence has it that snacking has an influence on the energy and nutrient levels but not on body mass index (Humpel, Owen & Leslie, 2002). It is necessary for an individual to know the compositions of the snacks they eat so that they can balance their intake to meet the required energy level. A healthy snack choice posits a challenge to youth (Humpel, Owen & Leslie, 2002). However, instead of prohibiting unhealthy snacks, the gradual introduction of healthy snack option will be a beneficial strategy (Anuar & Ghazali, 2011). The availability of healthy food choices outside an individual’s home is needed.
1.2.7 Psychological factors
Hippocrates first proposed the healing power of food; and during the middle age food was considered a tool to modify mood (Rozin, 2006). It has been documented that food alters our mood, which can also acts upon our choice of food (O’Connor, Jones, Conner, McMillan, & Ferguson, 2008; Wallis & Hetherington, 2009). It has been proven that the effect of food on an individual’s mood is related to their attitudes towards that particular foods (Ramsay, Jones, & Barker, 2007). The relationship with food such as, wanting to enjoy a meal but mindful of ones weight is a conflict that many people experience. People with high restraints are often guilty when they do not consume what they feel they should, and such restrictions can increase an individuals desire for that food, thereby resulting in food cravings (O’Connor, Jones, Conner, McMillan, & Ferguson, 2008).
Psychological stress is common in modern life and can affect health by modifying certain behaviors like, physical activity and food choice (Ramsay, Jones, & Barker, 2007). The influence of stress on choice of food is complex because of different kinds of stress experienced by an individual (EUFIC, 2005). The effect of stress on dietary intake depends on the individual, the circumstance and the stressor; these can influence people to either eat more or less (Oliver & Wardle, 1999). The study also found consumption of higher amounts of energy and fat foods during stressful periods of life (Oliver & Wardle, 1999) while others failed to find any overall differences in intakes between high and low stress times (Bellisle, Monneuse, Steptoe & Wardle, 1995) and others reported a decrease in appetite and food intake (Ramsay, Jones, & Barker, 2007).
The changes caused by stress in dietary habits and food choice are; motivational differences (less weight control concerns), physiological (a reduction in appetite due to stress) and changes in eating behaviour, availability/preparation of food (Ramsay, Jones, & Barker, 2007; Wardle et al., 2000). Thus, food choices and habits are influenced by mood and stress.
1.2.8 Beliefs
Religious background affects food choices and consumption. Kanekar and Merchant (2001) stated that religion influences food choices through its impact on norms. Prentice and Jebb (1993) revealed that food consumptions could be affected since some religious beliefs prohibit some kinds of food and provide guidelines for preparation method (e.g. halal, kosher). They added that religious fasting and feasting influences the choice of food; and these practices and restrictions can result in stable and rigid food habits, thus affecting the food consumption of students. Research has found that due to Islamic teachings about eating behaviour and classification of food into halal (permissible) and haram (prohibited); it is obligatory for Muslims to eat only halal food even when they are travelling in foreign countries (Bon & Hussain, 2010).
Bon and Hussain (2010) also added that most religious rules were set to help followers demonstrate their faith by adhering to religious rites concerning diets, (for example, saying thanks and blessings) and to develop discipline through fasting. In most religions, there are rules on how, when and what foods are eaten, for instance, fasting is common in some religion (Gilbert & Khokhar, 2008). Prentice and Jebb (1993) found that dietary practices vary among different religious subgroups within a given faith.
Some minority ethnic groups hold traditional beliefs about food, health and views on body image that conflict with those of scientific researches; e.g. body weight shows socioeconomic status (Landman & Cruickshank, 2001). Obesity is thought to be a symbol of wealth in most traditional African societies. It is important to address these cultural characteristics; beliefs may be particularly difficulty when delivering interventions, such as those that combat obesity.
1.3 Conclusion
There are many factors that influence the food choice of international students. Several studies (Furst et al., 1996; Rozin, 2006) have shown that international students in a temporal migration situation apply different mechanisms to cope with diet-related transitional stress and male students are more likely to make dietary changes than female students (Furst et al., 1996; Rozin, 2006). According to Rozin (2006), availability of healthy food and information on healthy eating are more important than price as a means to change dietary habits. Gender and access to healthy foods should be taken into consideration, and information on healthy eating should be made available for international students during their temporal stay abroad.
Studies by Pan, Dixon, Himburg & Huffman (1999); Satia (2003) found that migration, acculturation and peers affects the food choice of students. It has also been suggested that unhealthy lifestyles of international students, such as high consumption of sugary and fatty foods while experimenting with new foods, affects the dietary behaviours of individuals (Satia, 2003).
Students’ living arrangements (whether self-catering apartment or not) influences dietary habits, also the availability of food systems such as restaurants, supermarkets, fast-food outlets and street vendors near an individual’s accommodation has an influence on their eating habits (Nestle et al., 1998). Hendricks and Herbold, (1998) found that the choice of food interrelates with budget constraints, food availability, adequate storage/refrigeration, cooking utensils and equipment.
There are a number of barriers to dietary and lifestyle change in international students (Bellisle et al., 1995). Yet a recent literature indicated that very little empirical research exists on the role of food in the academic sojourn of international students; because food is one of the aspects of the sojourn that students find distressing (Satia, 2003; UK Council for International Students Affairs (UKCISA), 2009).
There has also been little dedicated research into international students’ food choice and dietary habits, as studies by Hall (1995); Henry and Wheeler (1980); Zwingmann and Gunn (1983) are rare but old examples given the increase in the number of international student. According to Satia (2003), it is a major challenge to effect dietary changes. Hence, different strategies are required to trigger a change in behaviour in groups with different priorities. Campaigns incorporating tailored advice on practical solution as well as environmental changes are likely to succeed in facilitating dietary change. This research therefore intends to add to the body of evidence by shedding more light on the factors that influence food choices among African students and how acculturation affects their choice of food.