When most people hear the word “cult”, many images appear. Maybe it’s one of a burning cross surrounded by hooded strangers in a black man’s yard, or a field of fallen bodies with cyanide-laced drinks spilt around them, or even possibly a group of hecklers yelling over a gay man’s funeral procession. No matter what image develops, it’s bound to not be a pretty one. And while it is true that the KKK, members of Jonestown, and supporters of Westboro Baptist Church are classified as cults and cult-followers, there is an interesting side to the discussion of cults that many have never considered. Forget the war-torn path of destructive and evil cults, and consider that many socially accepted institutions might be on the verge of being seen as a cult as well. Some say that churches and temples are cults, while others argue that attending a concert should be understood as cult-like activity.
A commonly overlooked institution in the discussion of cults is universities. Due to their high standing in social regard, they are often mentioned less in these debates than, say, religious groups whose values and premises are highly contested in the public sphere. However, there is ample evidence to support that a university or college could fit into a working definition of what a cult is, which will be discussed further. While this may seem like a derisory labeling, due to cult’s negative connotations and the positive social perceptions of colleges and universities, its important to be able to look past conceived notions of public institutions to form well rounded opinions about them. However, I argue that while universities fulfill all aspects of the working definition of a cult, the severity and degree to which the requirements are met and enacted reclassifies universities as neotribal enclaves.
Giving a strict definition to what is or is not a “cult” has proven to be difficult for many rhetoricians and researchers. This could be attributed to the eternally negative attitude towards cults and cult-like groups from society, paired with the denial that many socially accepted groups fit into various generated definitions. That is, with the right perspective, religious groups, political parties, and universities or schools could all be defined as cults. However, because of the popularity and emotional stigmas associated with these groups, there is a largely accepted denial that they could be considered cults. This is supported by proposed definitions of ‘cult’ with directly derogatory rhetoric, such as Edward Lottick’s belief that a cult is “a group or movement exhibiting a great or excessive devotion or dedication to some person, idea, or thing and employing unethically manipulative techniques or persuasion and control designed to advance the goals of the group’s leaders to the actual or possible detriment of members, their families, or the community” (Lottick). While the definition works well with contemporary images of cults, such as that of the Church of Scientology which “forces confinement” on members and threatens their families and bank accounts if they attempt to leave or the “physical violence” used to stop the leaving of Jonestown followers, the clearly one sided wording in the definition refuses to allow the numerous non-violent or seemingly benign organizations into the “cult” category (Kent, Hanson). Thus, one must more holistically define what a cult is.
Campbell proposes that a cult is “an extrusion, precipitated in all probability by some secular consideration” that also exhibits some sort of “mystic collectivity” (Campbell). While the religious component of this argument may not apply to every cult or cult-like following, the principle of Campbell’s first statement stands resolute that a cult is a group that breaks from the secular views of society to a certain extent. This concept of distinguishing their values from what is considered lesser or more average should be included in the definition of what a cult is. Universities would support this notion as their mission is to build an educational program to allow students and faculty to stand out amongst their communities and transcend to a higher level of knowledge. The University of Miami, for example, states clearly on their website that some of their core values include the pursuit of “excellence in our research and educational missions” as well as a “commitment to high standards of thought and communication” (University of Miami). Much like countless similar Universities mission statements and core values, Miami reflects the ubiquitous thought that attending a college or university will elevate students to higher standards of living and thinking over those who have not received the same education. This aligns it with part of Campbell’s definition of a cult.
When discussing recruitment tactics for cults versus other organizations, Wexler highlights that cults “tend to promise transformation” to their potential members which are later seem as “social problems when they are seen as hiding the cost of membership and encouraging cult forms of body or mind control (sleep deprivation, diet, drug use, or extreme exercise)” (Wexler). While it is widely recognized that universities attempt to promise types of growth or enlightenment to students who enter this campus, these types of mental or emotional developments are difficult to gauge for argument’s purpose. Wexler’s characteristic of a cult having a form of mind control over participants can be more directly measured and observed in the habits of colleges and universities. For example, universities have an overwhelming transformative ability to create alternate forms of body or mind control in their students. Due to the need to balance heavy class loads with jobs, extracurriculars, a social life, and personal time, students often exhibit sleeping, drinking, and eating habits that diminish the quality of life they lead. Studies conducted at numerous large, midwestern universities show that students, on average, fall asleep between 1:45-2:04 AM each night, rating their quality of sleep an average of 4/7 each night, which is much lower than what is recommended for people of their age and activity level (Pilcher). Students find that late nights studying matched with weekends of binge drinking and week days of racing around campus to participate in multiple activities to be emotionally, mentally, and physically draining. However, this is what is expected of students when they enter the campus lifestyle, thus supporting some of Wexler’s cult characteristic claims.
Ellwood and Richardson, however, offer more detailed and concise views as to what makes a group a cult. Ellwood suggests that a cult fulfills the following classifications:
1. Is a group that presents a distinct alternative to dominant patterns within the society
2. Possesses strong and authoritarian and charismatic leadership
3. Oriented toward inducing powerful subjective experiences and meeting personal needs
4. Is separatist in that it strives to maintain distinct boundaries between it and the outside, requiring a high degree of conformity and commitment
5. A tendency to see itself as legitimized by a long tradition of wisdom or practice
Universities fulfill all five of these characteristics, specifically through their school pride and efforts to uphold historic standards of excellence and values through education, extracurriculars, and research efforts. Richardson adds onto these points by stating that cults also
6. Are middle class in their clientele
7. Systematic in the programs of indoctrination
Both of the statements are true in accordance with universities and colleges, who are primarily attended by those of the middle and upper classes who can afford them and host a number of rituals and rites of passage whe
n introducing new classes or groups of students onto their campus. Because of their non-bias rhetoric as well as their specifications, all of these definitions and characteristics should be considered when creating a non-bias or slanted definition for what a cult is.
From the points presented above, one can see that universities and colleges fit many definitions of what a cult is or could be. It:
1. Is a group that is an extrusion, precipitated in all probability by some secular consideration (Campbell)
2. Encourages cult forms of body or mind control (sleep deprivation, diet, drug use, or extreme exercise) (Wexler)
3. Possess an authoritarian style of charismatic leadership (Wexler, Richardson)
4. Is middle class in their clientele (Richardson)
5. Legitimizes itself by a “long tradition of wisdom or practice” (Richardson)
6. Is “systematic” in induction processes (Richardson)
7. Focuses on creating a unique experience that cannot be replicated by other groups, creating an us-versus-them mentality (Wexler)
While all these points do ring true of universities in relation to cult definitions, there is still a large gap between how colleges partake in these defining qualities and what cults of religious, mystic, perspective, or political beliefs do. Therefore, one must question if there is another way to characterize institutions who match up with many, or all, of the definitions of a cult but to a lesser degree.
I propose that while universities and colleges do fit into the textbook definition of what a cult is, the extent to which they participate in cult-like recruiting tactics establishes them as a neotribal enclave instead. The term “neotribal enclave” is used by Mark Wexler to describe those who gather together with intent that is less intense than a cult, but more interactive than a club. Neotribal enclaves gather members in two ways, in person or via some virtual communication format. The purpose of these two interfaces is to promote the values held by the groups of “sharing aspects of experience, which pales when one experience alone” and to “generate virtual communities” to “form a network of connectivity” (Wexler). As opposed to cults, joining a neotribal enclave is associated with “the desire to connect with others” with networks that “can serve as both instrumental and social functions” (Wexler). Due to the importance to these groups of forming networks with broad groups of people, neotribal enclaves focus less on targeting forms of recruitment and instead more broad, public promotions of their cause, inviting large masses to their purpose. To appeal to potential members, enclaves flourish off of word of mouth promotion and furthering networking by members, especially on an online format. For example, many pop culture fandom groups thrive off of sharing opinions, beliefs, and fan based media content (such as fan art, fan fiction, reaction videos, etc) through websites like Tumblr, Instagram, Reddit, or Twitter. You would never see a promoted ad for their group or specific forums trying to attract your attention and wallet in joining a group like this. Instead, you might have a friend who is interested in the group as well and follows an account on Instagram dedicated to the subject matter, then you follow them, then follow a similar account, and so on until you associate yourself with this community and their opinions. Defining a neotribal enclave would be as follows: a neotribal enclave is a group who
1. Shares values in a face to face or online format
2. Values networking and sharing an experience that one would not achieve alone
3. Treats other members with warmer regards than outsiders
4. Recruits in the masses, less specific targeting of recruits
5. Opens induction into the enclave
6. Members get a sense of belonging via shared membership
Establishing whether or not a university fulfills the working definition of a group classification is important in the distinction between if it is considered a cult or not.
1. One must decide if universities and colleges share values in a face to face or online format. This could be viewed in two ways. Today’s college experience no longer has to be in the traditional university setting. Many students, especially those outside of the typical college student demographic age of 18-24, have taken the option to study using an online format. This allows students to study at their own pace while receiving credits and degrees from a varying array of universities. Many online degrees do require discussion forums and internet based classrooms so students still achieve the feeling of interacting with others in a similar situation. However, the stereotypical college experience of living on campus and attending classes in person with others is still an option that many take. This ability to chose your learning environment as a student satisfies the definition requirements that neotribal enclaves share values via face-to-face and online communities.
2. Many argue that the entire purpose of attending a college is to receive the “college experience” and earning a degree that will more than likely establish a higher quality of life for the graduate. In other words, a function of college is participating in an experience that without which, one would never know. Whether that be living in the dorms, shopping on a tight budget, attending school football games, or even graduating and earning a higher pay due to the degree, there is no doubt that universities offer an experience unlike any other that many wish to partake in.
3. The third requirement to being a neotribal enclave is best exhibited in the competition seen between colleges, especially in the rivalries amongst sports teams. Because different universities pride themselves in upholding different values and promoting different lifestyles, there tends to be the creation of a sibling-like rivalry of who is better or worse. Thus, when attending a school, one often acts friendlier to those who go to the same school as opposed to another. Treating the students whoa attend the same university as you with warmer regards is a way of establishing an “us-vs-them mentality against opposing schools. For example, at school football games, fans of the home team will shout “boo” when the opposing team takes the field and cheers when the home team arrives. This is an example of treating others with less enthusiasm or kindness than one’s own school.
4. Much like the definition of neotribal enclaves states, universities most certainly recruit in the masses, and focus less of targeting a small band of recruits at a time. While the university certainly creates a distinct brand for itself, a characteristic seeing clubs and cults according to Wexler, the sheer amount of applications that are received each year speaks to the recruiting tactics that universities use. For example, the University of Wisconsin receives an average of 32,000 applications on any given year for an incoming class of freshman and transfer students (CollegeData). Not only is it well understood that because of the 50% admissions and 25% student entrance rates that these students applied to numerous schools (CollegeData). This, along with the University’s less engaged recruiting tactics compared to smaller schools (direct mail, email lists, out of state college fairs, etc), the University of Wisconsin- Madison understands that because of their reputation that they can promote their school to a broad audience and receive many interested applicants.
5. While universities often do have initiation or rite of passage ceremonies in place for students, they are much less rigorous or tasking than those of a cult. They often require students to attend a convocation ceremony or campus orientation day. However, there are little to no consequences for students who do not take part in these fes
tivities unlike a cult.
6. Finally, universities fit into the definition of a neotribal enclave by enabling members to feel a sense of community and inclusion while apart of the school. That might be from hosting campus wide events, starting traditions through engaging activities, building student specific building, or even by having uniting songs, colors, or teams. There is a sense of community at universities felt by the masses that go beyond simply showing up to classes or meetings in the same space as other people.
Neotribal enclaves clearly give a more concise and accurate description of the type of institution universities and colleges in America are. While universities do fit into many of the schemas offered by those who study the qualities and recruiting processes of cults, describing a college as such would be an inaccurate depiction of what occurs on many college campuses. This is primarily due to their lack of severity in which they engage in the characteristics of a cult, such as mind control or separation from secular society. It is important to note, however, that because universities all function to varying extents of these established rules, that some may be classified as a cult instead of a neotribal enclave because the degree to which they facilitate the enactment of their values is more extreme or interactive than other institutions. These definitions are not limiting and could encompass many other characteristics of universities, as a whole.