A significant number of students of color in institutions of higher education are taught by faculty at community colleges. In a report published in 2015, the National Center for Educational Statistics found that 38 percent of undergraduate students attended public and private two-year colleges, of all full-time undergraduates, 24 percent attended community colleges and among all students who completed a degree at a four-year college in 2015–16, 49 percent had enrolled at a two-year college in the previous 10 years (NCES, 2015). Moreover, in fall 2014, it was reported that 56 percent of Hispanic undergraduates were enrolled at community colleges, while 44 percent of Black students and 39 percent of White students were at community colleges (Ginder, Kelly-Reid & Mann, 2017).
Institutions of higher education have historically been and remain majority white spaces within teaching positions. At research institutions, over 91% of full professors are white and 75% are male (Minor, 2014). At community colleges, 85% of all regular, full-time public 2-year college faculty members were White (non-Hispanic), 6% were Black or African American (non-Hispanic), 4% were Hispanic, 3% were Asian and=or Pacific Islanders, and only 0.5% were American Indian or Alaska Natives (Hardy & Laanan, 2006).
The majority of publications focused on faculty experiences at community colleges has focused on white faculty (Twombly & Townsend, 2008). In light of the data and research conducted on faculty of color at majority white institutions, it is critical to gain an understanding of the experiences of faculty of color at community colleges, within dimensions of their work life, the impact of institutional factors and structures, their identities as professors and the impact of racism (Twombly & Townsend, 2008). This annotated bibliography will present research that explores these areas in an attempt to gain a better understanding of faculty of color at community colleges.
Job Satisfaction
Bower, B. L. (2002). Campus life for faculty of color: Still strangers after all these years? New Directions for Community Colleges, 2002(118), 79-88. doi:10.1002/cc.66
Using the 2000 Center for the Study of Community Colleges faculty survey and qualitative data gathered by authors this qualitative study of 154 minority faculty in New York, California and Florida Explored the attitudes and experiences of minority faculty at community colleges. They found that in comparison to non-minority counterparts, minority faculty were less likely to indicate that their position contains nonteaching responsibilities, more likely to teach in an interdisciplinary team and see transfer as a primary function of the community college, in contract nonminority faculty see training for a new job-entry skill as the most important function. Additionally, they were more likely to think an administrative position would be attractive and more financially lucrative, and desire to pursue a doctorate. Minority faculty agreed that the college provides professional development opportunities and would chose academic life again in given a choose to do it over, and were more likely to disagree with claims that discriminatory practices against women and minority faculty and admins are exaggerated. This survey tool was not designed to capture more nuanced differences in responses between minority and nonminority faculty and provides only a snapshot of their experiences.
Flowers, L. A. (2005). Job Satisfaction Differentials Among African American Faculty At 2-Year And4-Year Institutions. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 29(4), 317-328. doi:10.1080/10668920590911896
This article presents the results of a study that explored descriptive data from a national survey of full and part time faculty assessing the extent to which African American faculty at 2-year and 4-year institutions differ in their job satisfaction. Overall, the findings revealed that African American faculty at 2-year institutions are more likely to report being very satisfied with their jobs than African American faculty at 4-year institutions. African American faculty at 2-year institutions are more likely to experience greater levels of contentment with various aspects of their jobs. For each motivating factor African American faculty were more likely to report higher levels of job satisfaction whereas for each hygiene factor faculty at 2-year as well as 4-year institutions were more likely to report greater levels of job dissatisfaction. This finding supported research that found that satisfaction with work is more likely to come from intrinsic or content factors. No analysis was done of gender differences among African American faculty with regards job satisfaction and qualitative data could not capture nuances associated with this field of inquiry.
Levin, J. S., Jackson-Boothby, A., Haberler, Z., & Walker, L. (2015). “Dangerous Work”: Improving Conditions for Faculty of Color in the Community College. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 39(9), 852-864. doi:10.1080/10668926.2014.917596
This article presents the results of a qualitative investigation of the experiences of faculty of color at community colleges, identifies the current conditions for this population and suggests opportunities for changing the conditions that inhibit their job satisfaction. A sample of 36 fulltime and part-time faculty from four California community colleges shared experiences as both community college faculty and faculty of color. Dangerous work refers to the work of challenging an engrained power structure resistant to change. Findings indicated that faculty perceived necessary institutional change at the deep structural level may be improbable to achieve at the community college. The resulting increase in faculty of color should this change occur would highlight the experiences of faculty of color and lead to a campus that supports both their professional and social identities so as not to have them in opposition. Faculty of color would express confidence in their self-efficacy and agency to effect change at their college, so that their efforts at institutional change is not dangerous work.
Mamiseishvili, K. (2010). Characteristics, Job Satisfaction, and Workplace Perceptions of Foreign-Born Faculty at Public 2-Year Institutions. Community College Review, 39(1), 26-45. doi:10.1177/0091552110394650
This article discusses study uses the data from the 2004 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty to examine the characteristics, job satisfaction, and workplace perceptions of the foreign-born group of the professoriate at public 2-year institutions relative to their U.S.-born peers. International faculty members in community colleges have been mostly overlooked in the literature and can serve as a valuable resource as community colleges grow internationalization efforts. Together with other minority faculty groups, foreign-born faculty members, with their diverse cultural and language backgrounds, can be instrumental in serving increasingly diverse student populations in community colleges nationwide. Foreign-born faculty members are a heterogeneous group of individuals with diverse cultural, language, and national backgrounds and much more racially diverse than their U.S. born peers. They are mostly employed at community colleges located in large or midsize cities and less represented at rural 2-year colleges and reported lower satisfaction and more negative perceptions with all aspects of their jobs than U.S.-born faculty members. The findings of this study may help 2-year institutions more effectively attract and retain foreign-born faculty members and provide them with a rewarding and supportive workplace.
Rosser, V. J., & Townsend, B. K. (2006). Determining public 2-year college faculty’s intent to leave: An empirical model. The Journal of Higher Education, 77(1), 124-147.
This article explores the findings of a study of two year college faculty intent to leave by looking at the influence of demographics, workplace variables and job satisfaction. Worklife variables included administrative support and facilities, professional development and technology support. Job satisfaction measured intrinsic factors such as decision-making authority, student advising, course preparation s and workload. 968 full and part time faculty were surveyed. The study found that overall public community college faculty are well satisfied with their worklife. Being employed at a 4-year prior to 2-year had a significant and negative impact on faculty satisfaction. For faculty of color it being a female or an ethnic minority faculty member had no significant impact on perceptions of worklife, satisfaction and intent to leave. Older faculty and those in their position linger were most satisfied and less likely to leave. Findings also revealed that part-time faculty were more likely to leave for another position either within or outside of the academe, and for fulltime faculty, benefits and security were not seen as a significant contributor to dissatisfaction. Faculty worklife is of critical importance to community college faculty and impact overall levels of satisfaction.
Gendered Dynamics
Singh, K., Robinson, A., & Williams-Green, J. (1995). Differences in Perceptions of African American Women and Men Faculty and Administrators. The Journal of Negro Education, 64(4), 401. doi:10.2307/2967263
This article reports on a study of African American men and women college faculty and administrators in the areas of promotion, tenure, institutional climate and professional life. The 413 survey participants came from the Virginia Black Faculty and Administrators Association and represented research institutions, 4-year traditionally White institutions, 4-year HBCUs and two-year community colleges. The survey found that women were disproportionality concentrated in assistant professorship while men held higher ranks. Both sexes found that leave policies at their institutions were fair, and that promotion and tenure requirements were clearly defined. Differences were found with regards perception of salaries, and overall African American women were less satisfied with the climate and organizational culture. While the survey did not report any differences by institutions, it identified the differences in realities between African American men and women in higher education, and emphasizes the need for more research to identify these more nuances differences.
Dey, E. L., Korn, J. S., & Sax, L. J. (1996). Betrayed by the Academy: The Sexual Harassment of Women College Faculty. The Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), 149. doi:10.2307/2943978
This article discusses a study focused on the incidence and the apparent effects of sexual harassment among faculty women found that there is a tendency for harassment to be higher in public institutions and at universities relative to four-year institutions. Faculty in four-year colleges and universities are no more likely to be harassed than those in two year colleges, though rates of harassment reported at public two-year colleges appeared to be relatively low, and could not be compared to private two-year colleges due to the lack of a representative sample of faculty from private institutions. Women who are married or with a partner being significantly less likely to be harassed. The study did find that harassment fundamentally alters the way a woman faculty member views the institutional climate where harassed women are much more likely to hold negative views of institutional norms toward respect for others, fairness toward women, and manner in which the campus administration operates. Relative to White women, only Native American are statistically more likely to report being harassed, whereas Asian American and African American significantly less likely and Latinas were about the same. Findings did not lend support to the idea that faculty of color are more likely to be harassed.
Hagedorn, L. S., & Laden, B. V. (2002). Exploring the climate for women as community college faculty. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2002(118), 69-78. doi:10.1002/cc.65
This article provides a literature review as well as analyses of a national dataset of responses of community college faculty to examine the climate at the nation’s two-year colleges, as little research has been done to examine the perceived conditions of women faculty in community colleges. The dataset included response from 743 male and 740 female faculty from across the country. The findings revealed statistical evidence of a difference in perceptions of discrimination by gender and race: women were more likely than men to perceive discrimination and women of color were even more likely than men and white women to perceive discrimination. Findings also revealed that women of color perceived a different climate than white women, which may indicate undercurrents of attitudes or events that could not be measure in the questionnaire. Additionally, women faculty do not report higher levels of dissatisfaction or a greater propensity to leave the academe. The authors suggest qualitative research that could add to a more rounded analysis.
Jackson, J. F. (2008). Race Segregation Across the Academic Workforce. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(7), 1004-1029. doi:10.1177/0002764207312003
This article discusses a study that attempts to identify factors that may influence hiring decisions in higher education of African American men who were found to be disadvantaged in the higher education workforce. The data was sourced from a national study of college faculty and instructors. The resulting sample found that the largest percentage of men (African American and White) was employed at 2-year colleges. In terms of income and employment opportunities, previous studies have indicated that African American men fare less well than their White counterparts in the academic workforce, including a recent study by the author that found the hiring practices in higher education had a disparate effect on African American men. This study examined the extent to which human capital and merit-based performance measures are critical criteria for decision making within the overall hiring practices in higher education of African American and White men. The study found that while both measures were good employment predictors for White men, they were not good employment predictors for African American men. Only five variables in the study were statistically significant across all logistic regression models for African American men suggesting that another set of variables may be a better predictor for African American men.
Lester, J. (2009). Not Your Child’s Playground: Workplace Bullying Among Community College Faculty. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 33(5), 444-462. doi:10.1080/10668920902728394
This article explores a study examining the prevalence of workplace bullying among and between community college faulty to better understand the nature of harassment and the ways in which women define and respond to it. Six fulltime women faculty at urban community colleges were part of this ethnographic study. Community colleges have provided an entree into higher education for many women, yet, women faculty perceive the overall climate of community colleges as ‘‘chilly.’’ Workplace bullying is a form of interpersonal aggression that has implications for how individuals perceive the organizational climate, job productivity, and job satisfaction. Findings from this study indicate that workplace bullying among faculty includes many subtle practices characterized by informal and formal use of power, faculty workplace bullying is affected by several enabling structures specific to the context, and victims typically respond with avoidance. Women faculty are often marginalized as ‘‘catty women’’. Women of color were discriminated against in addition to being bullied in an all-male and primarily White department, as bullying is often aligned with sexism and racism. Organizations that have undergone recent leadership changes, have large bureaucracies, and a history of tolerant cultures have more incidences of bullying as especially susceptible to bullying as the destabilized power environment creates anxiety.
Oakes, J. L. (2008). Tenure and promotion differentials for women faculty and faculty of color at public two year colleges in the United States (Doctoral dissertation, University of Denver)
This dissertation study explores the extent to which race/ethnicity are related to tenure status and academic rank of two-year faculty, given that a lower percentage of faculty of color hold tenure at community colleges. . Data for this study were obtained from the 2004 National Survey of Postsecondary Faculty and revealed no significant gender difference in the attainment of the rank of full professor, though Caucasian faculty maintained an advantage over faculty of color regarding attainment of the rank of full professor, an advantage that was even more pronounced within centralized community college systems, suggesting that centralized community college systems differ in their promotion and tenure decisions from non-centralized colleges. The odds of being tenured were significantly lower for all faculty (regardless of gender or race/ethnicity) employed at institutions in which respondents reported perceptions of fair treatment for faculty of color. Union status, emerged as a significant predictor of tenure.
Opp, R. D., & Gosetti, P. P. (2002). Women full-time faculty of color in 2-year colleges: A trend and predictive analysis. Community College Journal of Research &Practice, 26(7-8), 609-627.
This article discussed the results of a study of the trend and predictive analyses to examine changes in the proportional representation of women full-time faculty by race/ethnicity from 1991 to 1997. Knowledge of the status of women of color within faculty ranks in two year colleges is limited and important in light of successful legal challenges and ballot initiatives against affirmative action policies. The sample included 1,024 matched two-year colleges and revealed that women full-time faculty from all racial/ ethnic groups experienced an increase in their proportional representation, with white women faculty achieving the largest increase. African American women full- time faculty experienced their greatest increase at Hispanic-serving institutions (HSIs). The higher a 2-year college’s percentage of women administrators of color, the more likely it was to experience an increase in its proportional representation of women full-time faculty of color, suggesting that a critical mass of women administrators of color is an essential ingredient in enhancing the number of women full-time faculty of color in 2- year colleges. The larger the 2-year college, the greater was its increase in proportional representation of women full-time faculty.
Patitu, C. L., & Hinton, K. G. (2003). The experiences of African American women faculty and administrators in higher education: Has anything changed? New Directions for Student Services, 2003(104), 79-93. doi:10.1002/ss.109
This article explores the experiences and concerns of African American women faculty and administrators using data from two recent studies comprised of faculty and staff from both 2-year and 4-year institutions. Participants cited racism, sexism, and homophobia as particular concerns and stressed the need for support in hostile environments at predominantly white institutions that were characterized by conflicting information, unwritten rules, lack of direction and mentoring, and nitpicking or triviality. African American administrators felt race was more salient, and being a woman – less threatening – in their efforts to retain their positions and seek promotion. Many learn coping and survival techniques to preserve her sense of personhood and sense of purpose. Community College faculty cited a hassle free promotion and tenure process owing to the absence of a necessary research agenda, thereby making the process uncomplicated. At community colleges tenure is based primarily on involvement in college and professional activities and community service. The studies examined the experiences of only five faculty members and five administrators. The authors recommend the establishment of support systems to alleviate the isolation and loneliness felt by African American women in the academy.
Perna, L. W. (2003). The Status of Women and Minorities among Community College Faculty. Research in Higher Education, 44(2, AIR Forum Issue), 205-240. Retrieved December 05, 2017, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/40197300?ref=search-gateway:66a72db8add7f7add2342013af6814d2
This article discusses the examination of the employment outcomes of women and minority faculty employed at public 2- year colleges nationwide. These outcomes include employment status, salary, rank, and tenure status. Asians are as likely, but American Indians and Hispanics to be more likely than whites to be employed at public institutions, while Hispanic faculty continue to be more likely than other faculty to be employed at a public 2-year college. While observed salaries are statistically equivalent among full-time faculty of different racial/ethnic groups, women average lower institutional base salaries than men among full-time public 2-year college faculty. A smaller share of faculty overall appear to hold the rank of associate professor, while a higher share of Hispanics than of faculty overall appear to hold the rank of assistant professor. Being a member of a union, not just working at a unionized institution, is associated with lower likelihood of holding a part-time nontenure-track position and lower likelihood of holding a part-time regular or temporary position.
Institutional Culture and Climate
Levin, J. S., Haberler, Z., Walker, L., & Jackson-Boothby, A. (2013). Community College Culture and Faculty of Color. Community College Review, 42(1), 55-74. doi:10.1177/0091552113512864
This article looks at the ways in which community college faculty of color develop their understandings of institutional culture in light of the oftentimes homogenous image of community colleges depicted in the literature. The authors interviewed 31 fulltime faculty of color at four community colleges in California. This faculty group expresses identity conflicts between their professional roles and their cultural identities and discussed divided professional worlds, wherein they feel subordinated to their white counterparts. Differences were also expressed in the understanding of student-centered between faculty of color and white faculty, which can lead to differences in professional identities. Additionally different personal goals for the campus environments were articulated. Their understandings of their institutions suggest that the culture of the community college is more complex and multi-faceted than that portrayed in the scholarly literature, which often portrays the institution as homogeneous and the faculty body as uniform. The variety amongst of community college is highlighted in this article and stresses the need to address consensual culture within which the needs of faculty of color and other minoritized groups on campus are ignored.
Townsend, B. K. (2006). Community College Organizational Climate for Minorities and Women. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 30(10), 813-826. doi:10.1080/10668920600901814
This paper explores the elements of a positive organizational climate for women and minorities within community colleges as majority white institutions and ways to achieve such a climate. It describes some traditional aspects of a positive organizational climate for women and minorities – such as the representation of women and minorities proportionate to their percentage in the population served by the institution, equal pay for equal work, equal opportunity for promotion, regardless of race/ethnicity and gender and organizations where the organizational structure, policies, and practices are overtly antiracist and antisexist, and evaluates how well the community college is doing in these areas. It then looks at structural expressions of a negative climate, including negative discourse about minorities and women. The paper concludes by addressing some steps that can be taken to improve the organizational climate including awareness of how our cultural assumptions affect our ability and willingness to change organizational climate, and a perspective that women and minorities are not disadvantaged because they do not fit the norms of White middle-and upper-class males. It urges leaders to look at the unwritten rules that impact hiring practices and determine success at the institution.
Faculty Identity Development
Levin, J. S., Walker, L., Haberler, Z., & Jackson-Boothby, A. (2013). The Divided Self. Community College Review, 41(4), 311-329. doi:10.1177/0091552113504454.
This article presents the results of a qualitative study of the examination of the experiences and professional sense making of 36 faculty of color from various programs at four California community colleges using critical race theory and social identity theory. The study looked at how ‘double consciousness’ is articulated by faculty and found evidence of a divided self among the participants. Minority faculty encounters a complicated process when developing a professional identity, owing to a “double consciousness” as identified by DuBois in 1897. In extreme cases of “double consciousness” faculty experience depersonalization, which takes place when embracing professional roles and identities while submerging racial or ethnic identities that may affect work lives. Minority faculty find themselves having to reconcile how they view themselves and how their institutions and its constituents view them, thus impacting their personal and professional identities. The study found a dissonance between the professional self and social identify among faculty of color leading to a ‘divided self’. The narratives reflected an institutional culture guided by white faculty and administrators in the areas of hiring, administration, leadership. Counter-narratives emerged as a pathway forward embodying hope for change which may never occur.
Levin, J., Walker, L., Jackson-Boothby, A., & Haberler, Z. (2013). Community colleges and their faculty of color: Matching teacher and students. Retrieved from http://c4.ucr.edu/documents/GSP2report_C4finalJuly152013.pdf
This report sought to identify the reasons for the low volume of faculty of color and to explain the experiences of these faculty at community colleges that may impact policies by interviewing 36 fulltime and part time faculty at four community colleges in California. The report found that to faculty of color, student centered practices mean connecting their backgrounds to students whereas the mainstream population sees it as stressing student learning outcomes or focusing on teaching. Other findings included the subordinated view faculty of color has of themselves in relation to the white faculty counterparts and that faculty of color see themselves as critical to the development and education of their students. It is through emphasizing students that faculty have been able to embrace both their social and professional identities. The report recommends a commitment by institutions to achieve a critical mass of faculty of color on community college campuses, acknowledge the impact that faculty of color have on the success and achievement of students of color and find ways to maximize the commitment of faculty of color to the development and success of students of color.
Park, J. J., & Denson, N. (2009). Attitudes and Advocacy: Understanding Faculty Views on Racial/Ethnic Diversity. The Journal of Higher Education, 80(4), 415-438. doi:10.1353/jhe.0.0054
This article discusses a study of Diversity Advocacy and how it varies within subsets of faculty and to identify predictors of faculty attitudes regarding diversity at two- and four-year colleges and universities across the country. Because faculty play such a critical role in the life of the university, it is essential to better understand their attitudes towards diversity, especially in a time period where policies geared towards increasing access to higher education for students of color continue to be challenged. The “Diversity Advocacy” variable is composite variable that taps into a variety of faculty attitudes towards diversity including their commitments to promoting racial understanding and their views on the role of diversity in undergraduate education. Black faculty were likely to score high on Diversity Advocacy. Rates of Diversity Advocacy did not vary widely among two-year institutions versus four-year public institutions and four-year private institutions. Faculty at four-year public institutions were significantly more likely to be diversity advocates, while faculty at institutions with higher percentages of students of color were less likely to score high on Diversity Advocacy. The data only provided a snapshot of the trends across thousands of faculty and lacks the ability to capture the nuances of the Diversity Advocacy concept that qualitative research is better suited to investigate
Thirolf, K. Q. (2012). The Faculty Identities of Community College Adjuncts Teaching in the Humanities: A Discourse Analysis Study. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 36(4), 269-278. doi:10.1080/10668926.2012.637864
This article present the findings of a study examining the faculty identities of newly-hired community college adjuncts teaching in the humanities using positioning theory and discourse analysis his study uses positioning theory. Critical to becoming an effective teacher a professional identity is essential and little research has been done on the professional identities of adjunct faculty. Citing Reybold (2003), professional identity is defined as ‘‘the formation of an attitude of personal responsibility regarding one’s role in the profession, a commitment to behave ethically and morally, and the development of feelings of pride for the profession’’. Findings suggest that these adjuncts experience positive faculty identity development through their teaching and interactions with students – at the core of their identities was their love of teaching. They encountered negative faculty identity development via their interactions with their faculty peers, diminished interactions with fulltime faculty and a feeling disconnected from them – ultimately impacting their professional faculty identity development. Article recommends colleges identify more opportunities for adjuncts and fulltime faculty to interact. The study is limited by its sample size and narrow focus on humanities faculty.
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