Literature review
1.1 Introduction
The literature relevant to research into the school commute and the role design has on altering lifestyle is diverse. This chapter provides a summary of the topics considered to be the most relevant. It begins with a brief discussion on the background and nature of the school commute, followed by identified indicators for change. An analysis of oppositional views to change will be considered. There will be an over view of examples of design characteristics related to wellbeing and examples of active design.
1.2 The background and nature of the school commute
The commute patterns of young people travelling to school have been extensively explored in previous literature. Such widespread interest in school travelling patterns has been fuelled by internationally declining rates of young people actively commuting to school. The proportion of youth in the UK actively commuting to and from school has significantly declined over the past three decades (Collins, Al-Nakeeb, and Lyons, 2015). Fifty percent of British children are currently being driven to school who live in a one mile radius from the school. Levels of physical activity and active commuting are declining among school children and interventions to promote active travel have reported weak effects (Mammen et al., 2012). A longitudinal study carried out by (Panter et al., 2013) concluded that children were more likely to take up or maintain active travel if they lived closer to school and if their parents reported that they thought it inconvenient to use the car for school travel. For uptake of active commuting, further individual, socio cultural and environmental predictors were associated, including lower socio economic status and higher road safety. These results indicate that a combination of environment and convenience play an important role in predicting active commuting longitudinally. (Hume et al., 2009) found few social and physical environmental predictors that were associated with children’s mode of travel to school. However, distance to school was positively associated with both maintenance and taking up active commuting, which is consistent with cross sectional evidence indicating a strong association between distances and commuting more (Panter et al., 2009). Regardless of individual or socio cultural characteristics, children may be unlikely to take up or maintain levels of walking if the distance is too large and the time taken deemed too long. Cross sectional findings (Panter et al., 2009) demonstrate that parents play a key role in determining the mode of travel used on the journey to school.
A review of predominantly cross sectional studies concluded that socio economic status has an important influence on children’s active commuting (Panter et al.,2009). Children from low socio economic backgrounds were more likely to actively commute than those from high socio economic groups. Previous literature has questioned whether active school commuting makes young people more active(Lee, Orenstein, and Richardson, 2008). However, the study by Peter Collins provides no evidence to support a proposition that young people’s commute mode is predominantly determined by their overall activity level (Collins, Al- Nakeeb, and Lyons, 2015). Literature has indicated that males are more likely than females to actively commute to and from school (Silva et al., 2011), (Van Dyck et al., 2010).
Collins, P., Al-Nakeeb, Y. and Lyons, M. (2015) ‘Tracking the commute home from school utilizing GPS and heart rate monitoring: Establishing the contribution to free-living physical activity’, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 12(2), pp. 155’162. doi: 10.1123/jpah.12.2.155.
Mammen, G., Faulkner, G., Buliung, R. and Lay, J. (2012) ‘Understanding the drive to escort: A cross-sectional analysis examining parental attitudes towards children’s school travel and independent mobility’, BMC Public Health, 12(1). doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-862.
Panter, J., Corder, K., Griffin, S.J., Jones, A.P. and van Sluijs, E.M. (2013) ‘Individual, socio-cultural and environmental predictors of uptake and maintenance of active commuting in children: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study’, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10(1), p. 83. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-10-83.
Panter, J.R., Jones, A.P., van Sluijs, E.M.F. and Griffin, S.J. (2009) ‘Attitudes, social support and environmental perceptions as predictors of active commuting behaviour in school children’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 64(01), pp. 41’48. doi: 10.1136/jech.2009.086918.
Hume, C., Timperio, A., Salmon, J., Carver, A., Giles-Corti, B. and Crawford, D. (2009) ‘Walking and cycling to school’, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(3), pp. 195’200. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2008.10.011.
Panter, J.R., Jones, A.P., van Sluijs, E.M.F. and Griffin, S.J. (2009b) ‘Attitudes, social support and environmental perceptions as predictors of active commuting behaviour in school children’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 64(01), pp. 41’48. doi: 10.1136/jech.2009.086918.
Lee, M.C., Orenstein, M.R. and Richardson, M.J. (2008) ‘Systematic review of active commuting to school and children’s physical activity and weight’, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 5(6), pp. 930’949. doi: 10.1123/jpah.5.6.930.
Silva, K.S., Nahas, M.V., Borgatto, A.F., Oliveira, E.S., Del Duca, G.F. and Lopes, A.S. (2011) ‘Factors associated with active commuting to school and to work among Brazilian adolescents’, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 8(7), pp. 926’933. doi: 10.1123/jpah.8.7.926.
Van Dyck, D., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Cardon, G. and Deforche, B. (2010) ‘Criterion distances and correlates of active transportation to school in Belgian older adolescents’, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7(1), p. 87. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-7-87.