Essay: Critically evaluate extent to which national policies/global governance can address environmental challenges

Using examples and theories, critically evaluate the extent to which national policies and global governance can address environmental challenges.
This essay is going to look at air and water pollution in China and the issue of rising sea levels and the impact on small island states (SIDs). The pollution that industries such as oil and textile produce have led to a phenomenon known as ‘cancer villages.’ These cancer villages are located next to factories and have saw an increase in deaths, cancers, birth defects and infant mortality. A realist view of china is that the countries government employs the ‘pollute first, clean up later’ approach. Polluters who occupy villages have caused toxic air and water which pose a sever threat to the villagers. Costs to the health care system pose a large long-term problem. China need to address air and water pollution through implementing legislation such as safe minimum standards and market-based instruments. Low lying islands such as the Maldives and the Pacific face the severe threat of disappearing which will lead to an increase in the levels of climate refugees. Germany have taken action with the International Climate Initiative (IKI) and The Nansen initiative, work on behalf of the UNHCR on a mission to protect displaced people. Liberal institutionalism argues that through international bodies such as the United Nations or the European Union, countries can cooperate effectively with each other to achieve change. The realist approach rejects the internationalist theory, arguing that supranational bodies are not addressing change as environmental pollution and poverty and is failing in practise. This short research paper will examine two environmental challenges separately and then follow on to a comparison of how global governance and national polices can effectively address change.
China’s Cancer Villages.
It is clear that the level of economic development in China is associated with environmental challenges, namely cancer villages. Cancer villages can occur when the river water quality stands at grade 5 or worse which is the lowest grade in Chinese water classification. (Liu, 2010).
The Role of Grassroots movements and Non-Governmental Officials.
Grassroots activism and non-governmental officials’ efforts have led to some small changes, villagers sometime try to block traffic to factories or ‘tamper with water supply systems in order to gain attention’ (Liu, 2010). Such activities and protests lead to riots. The Chinese government often supress activists, arresting or shutting down protests. Wang Linsheng was fired from his position as Chinese Communist Party secretary after telling the media how many villagers had died of cancer. However, these grassroots movements and NGO efforts to gain significant media attention led to a government investment of four million Renminbi to build a drinking water reservoir. Green Anhui achieved success by helping ‘farmers collect evidence, gain media coverage, and drive the three chemical factories away from their village’ (Liu, 2010), this removal of the three polluters that occupied this village meant that the sources of the water and air pollution that had been causing cancer were gone. It is important that the Chinese government are willing to cooperate with civil society, there have been reports of harassment, assault and prosecutions to activists who were looking to get credible evidence. These grassroot movements have has particular success, Chongqing Environmental Protection Bureau put a halt to chemical factories in one district in order to inspect them, only three of them were allowed to reopen. Although the Chinese government has often dismissed and supressed activists and media, they have reportedly allowed more citizen involvement in environmental protection. NGO’s have a been successful in educating, holding campaigns and conservation projects, there has been less success in influencing government decisions. It is necessary that international and national NGO’s work together.
Applying The Environmental Kuznets Curve.
China employs the ‘grow first and clean up later’, the environment suffers as a result of rapid industrialisation and increasing GDP. In short, the Environmental Kuznets curve (ECK) posits that as economic growth occurs in the initial stage of industrialisation, environmental degradation occurs, thereafter once per capita income has reached a certain threshold, people can then afford to demand a better environment. These cancer villages provide empirical evidence of how these early stages of economic development can cause damages of such magnitude that they are irreversible. It is unlikely to see the level of pollution in these villages decrease, meaning that in the long-term, China must address the need for health care and treatment, incurring huge costs. Problems with the ECK is that the emissions turning point may be too high, as already discussed the level of pollution will be irreversible.
National Policy.
The European Union regulation, Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) when in practise aims to protect humans and the environment from the use of chemicals, to hold polluters accountable for the placement of chemicals on the market. Countries who are not members in the EU have started to implement regulations of REACH or currently adopting a framework similar to that of REACH. China is taking steps towards regulatory approaches to chemicals and has agreed to implement Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, working with the UN. This is a step forward, however more emphasis must be placed on market-based instruments (MBIs) to prevent high levels of pollution, rather than mere registration and authorisation of chemicals as they are still causing severe health problems.
Market based instruments in China
The government have been making progress to improve the quality of the water in The Peoples Republic Of China. China’s tenth and eleventh five-year plans entailed the governments intentions in controlling water pollution. The government did invest into water pollution technologies, between 2000 and 2008, pollution control investments grew by 420%, this shows tangible efforts in cleaning up China’s water. Command and control instruments are central to water pollution and control policy. Examples of command and control policies which they use include discharge permits, the application of discharge standards and total load control. Although command and control instruments such as these achieve results, there are problems. There is little use being made of incentive based or voluntary policies. The current policies do not put enough attention on the prevention and management, rather they emphasize pollution control. The precautionary principle should be applied by policy makers in China, rather than polluting first and cleaning up later, much more should be done to prevent rather than end-of-pipe strategies. To address the growing problems of water pollution, more attention on market-based instruments are needed from China’s government. Looking at international market-based instruments, China’s water system may benefit from water quality trading: this is similar to emissions trading, where pollution control becomes something of a market within itself.
Rising Sea Levels
Increases on a global level in greenhouse gas emissions contribute to climate change and as a result, rising sea levels mean that the future of low-lying states and islands is alarming. ‘Rising global sea level is likely to accelerate through the twenty-first century with a rise of 18-59cm above 1990 levels projected by the end of the century’ (Meehl et al. 2007). This in turn will cause food and water insecurity, pose a threat to human safety and national security will be affected. Ha’ofa’s ‘Sea of Islands’ thesis is about the ‘resilience and adaptive capacities of island communities that leverage global networks in the face of local environmental devastation.’ (Lazrus, 2012) A sea level rise of just one metre could mean the loss of the entire land area (MHAHE, 2001). Severe beach erosion and fresh water scarcity is an effect of gradual sea level rise. Also, the increased levels of sea water temperature pose a threat to the coral reefs which support the countries tourism and fisheries.
National Policies
The Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) was set up and completed by the Maldives. This not only highlighted how vulnerable the Maldives is to rising sea levels and temperature but included adaptation and mitigation projects. In the Maldives National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), ‘adaptation is seen as “a multi-dimensional goal that aims to increase resilience of the vulnerable systems against climate hazards and risks to achieve sustainable development outcomes” (MEEW, 2007).’
These adaptation actions focus mostly on risk reduction, in particular, building infrastructure to reduce the vulnerability. The Maldives benefits from funding from the LDCF: Integration of future climate change scenarios into the Safer Island Strategy.
Global Governance
It is essential that the Maldives receives funding from other governing bodies, otherwise their adaptation and mitigation strategies would be unreachable. A Climate Trust Fund was set up by the European Union and the World Bank. One of its aims is to ‘build a resilient economy through various mitigation and adaption activities.’ (I. Faisal, 2011). Germany’s International Climate Change Initiative (IKI) helps small island states such as the Maldives in reaching a climate-friendly economy and the use of renewable energies. Germany’s IKI is providing almost EUR 3 million in supporting the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) who is implementing the project. It’s aim here is to work with small island states who are reliant upon imported fossil fuels to meet their demand to foster and promote renewable energies and a sustainable supply of energy. The importation of fossil fuel are high in cost, so another important initiative, the Sustainable Energy for All (se4all) intends to double the share of renewables in the global energy mix to 36% by 2030. SIDs are already beginning to set new and ambitious targets to reach in order to expand renewable energies.
The Nansen initiative is an agenda for the protection of cross-border displaced people in the context of climate change related disasters. The Nansen Initiative addresses the environmental challenge of displaced people from climate change disasters by encouraging (sub-)regional cooperation. The Cancun Agreement (COP16) was a point in which states recognized adaptation challenges from climate change migration. Following the cancun agreement was the Nansen Conference on Climate Change and Displacement, here Norway and Switzerland pledged the need to confront climate change related displacements and the protection of those who are affected. The Nansen Initiative is a bottom-up approach with a multi-stakeholder involvement. Civil society and intergovernmental regional consultations took place. Liberal institutionalism argues that cooperation between states is necessary. It is crucial that countries, regulatory bodies and civil society participate and cooperate to address environmental challenges such as these to ensure the safety and protection of displaced people.
Conclusion
The extent to which environmental challenges can be addressed be addressed through national policies requires civil society, i.e protests and the work of NGOs to influence policy. Taking a look at how other countries use market-based instruments to address industrial pollution would be useful for China, specifically water trading systems and other command and control instruments. It is essential that regulatory bodies continue to meet to encourage countries to cooperate and discuss adaptation and mitigation strategies.