Essay: The Luba Lunda Dispersal

ORIGIN
Africa is the cradle of mankind. Historians believe that man developed from Africa and later spread all over the world. In the Olduvai Gorge, in Tanzania, East Africa, developed the first true man called Homohabilis (Homo Sapien) who was preceded by what the archaeologists have called Pre-stone people such as Proconsul. These people occupied the whole of North Africa in an area known as the upper Benue and the Cameroon chad highlands. Due to the drying up of the Sahara these Bantu people migrated southwards. Bantu means people who live in central and southern Africa and have a similar language characteristic.
I have found that there is currently a knowledge deficit in regards to Luba-Lunda Kingdom and its expansion. Previously historians believed that the history of such a kingdom and its expansion was only a myth because the information they obtained was by oral tradition. This research paper should be considered an evolved continuation from previous studies on the Luba-Lunda kingdom, as it not only focuses on the Luba-Lunda Kingdom but also on some other kingdoms that were formed as a result of the kingdom.
One group which used the central route settled in what was called Zaire, today, the Democratic Republic of Congo. They formed two ancient kingdoms, the Lunda Kingdom of Mwatayamvo and the Luba kingdom of Kongolo near the Kasai river and Lualaba river respectively. From Zaire (Congo) due to many causes, they further migrated into Zambia. This migration is what is called the Luba and Lunda migrations or dispersal. Dispersal in the sense of how they distributed themselves all over Zambia, a country described by many as the haven of peace. These migrations took place between AD1500 and AD1800.
Not all the tribes in Zambia belong to the luba-lunda migrations. For example, the Ngoni of Mpezeni, in the eastern part of Zambia came from South Africa at the heightened period of the wars of the greatest king in Africa, Shaka. Also, the Tongas who are believed to be the first Bantu in Zambia belong to the early Bantu migrations from North Africa. They introduced the herding of animals as a continuation of their culture in North Africa. The Tonga are settled in the southern part of Zambia, deliberately chosen due its fertile soil and enough pasture for their animals. The rest of the ethnic tribes therefore came from the Luba and Lunda kingdoms.
CAUSES
African history depends much on oral traditions than recorded information. Fortunately, enough this crucial period represents the interval between the archaeological era of Zambia’s past and the first-hand accounts of European travellers. As such the causes are not known but many points have been put forward. Needham, D.E (1984) states that a number of factors were behind Luba and Lunda migrations into Zambia.
Occupation could have forced them to migrate as most of them were pastoralists in search of grazing land; Agriculturalists looking for fertile land, traders after goods or to control the resources of trade, blacksmiths in search of mineral resources, hunters in search of game, fishermen in search of big rivers.
Their customs, especially, matrilineal could have led them to migrate. Sons of the ruling chiefs could not succeed their fathers due to the matriarchal custom of succession. If they still wanted to be chiefs, they had to migrate to other areas.
Succession disputes (civil wars) led those who were defeated to leave for other lands. They fled the wrath of the new chief whom they had opposed.
Convicted people like those accused of practicing witchcraft, theft, debts and other crimes left in disappointment and went to new areas. Others fled from an area infested with wizards in some cases after the death of a child in a mysterious fashion.
Tribal wars also prompted people to migrate especially after they had been defeated. Rather than accept the new ruler, they migrated to other areas to continue their life under their chiefs (not foreign domination). Slave trade also contributed towards migrations as people fled from slave drivers or traders. Adventure also played its part in the dispersal; especially for those who saw the other places better than theirs. Ambition among rulers to dominate or conquer other groups and bring them under their control was another factor.
Over population caused by good food, like bananas, cassava and maize and the fact that people stayed in the same place for a very long time was another factor. Moreover, land became exhausted so they had to migrate. System of shifting cultivation also contributed to migrations. As soon as the land lost its fertility, migration kicked in.
In the 19th century, the travels of Henry Morton Stanley brought exploration of the region of Central Africa. Back in Europe, as the Industrial Revolution continued to gain momentum, more and more resources were needed to sustain the growth of various industries. Belgium, a growing industrial nation, was looking into establishing a colony somewhere. And when the words of Stanley’s travels were heard, the Belgian moved into the modern-day Congo to establish its biggest colony. However, as they began their conquest, they saw a civilization that occupied the whole region an empire that belonged to the Lunda people.
At the Valley of Nkalaany, close to the Upper Kassai River, the Lunda people occupied the area. In the 17th century, the Lunda people were not united. It was made of several chiefdoms. They were a scattered people with no central authority. To the Northeast of the core lands of the Lunda people, a more organize kingdom of Luba existed. They had a concept of a central government but had also the idea of autonomy to its conquered lands. During the early 1600, a prince from this kingdom arrived to one of the Lunda tribes. The prince name was Kibinga Ilunga. Kibinga Ilunga managed to court the female chief of the Lunda tribe. The female chief, Lueji, fell to Kibinda Ilunga and made him into his consort.
The relation of the prince and chief allowed the Luba ideas of government to be incorporated to the Lunda tribe. The Lusengi, the son of Kibinda Ilunga to another woman, was responsible for setting up the Luba system of government to the Lunda people. The ideas included a somewhat decentralized government. It meant that a conquered tribe’s chief, called Naweii Mwaant a Ngaand or the owner of the land, would be allowed to manage his tribe. However, he or she must be answer to the central government. Alongside the chief, a military provincial head, called the Kawaata, would also be present at the conquered lands. Another concept placed on the Lunda was the concept of inheritance of relation. Under the government set up, a successor of the ruler could also inherit a relation from his predecessor. Thus, as scholars suggest, a foreigner could easily be ruler as he could also inherit a relationship to his predecessor.
Lusengi might had begun the infusion of Luba government ideas to the Lunda people, but the creation of the Lunda Empire that would stand for a century was established by his son, Naweji. Naweji made the expansion throughout his life until his death in 1690. He unified the Lunda people and expanded its territories which later include the Zambezi and Kwango River. He and his successors continued the expansion of Lunda domains. By modern standards, the areas occupied by the Lunda included the Democratic Republic of Congo and some parts of Angola and Zambia.
By dawn of the 17th century, the Lunda was a powerful empire within the Central African region. The political ideas shared by the Lubas to the Lundas allowed it to grow into a vast empire. Besides its size and political system, the Lunda also had a vibrant economy. The Lunda empire profited from the trade of salt, copper, honey, ivory, and, most importantly, slaves. Transit taxes were charged to Arabs and European merchants dealing with the mentioned trade crossing over the empire. The Lunda Empire also benefited to the gold trade in the region of East Africa, especially the area nearby the Great Zimbabwe. The Lunda Empire also relied to its agriculture. They grew millets and sorghum. When the European arrived, they also began to cultivate maize and cassava, then later, sunflower (for their oil) and also tropical fruits like pineapple.
During this period as well, offshoot Lunda kingdoms also began to rise. Some of the break away were caused by the rise of Kibinga Ilunga and his sons in the Lunda society. They could not accept that a foreigner or an outsider rose to such a high position and so they decided to leave. There was also a simpler cause. An example was one of the most powerful was in the east of the Lunda Empire – the Kingdom of Kazembe. The story of the Kazambe began in the early 17th century. Mwata Yamvo Muteba rewarded the Ngoda Bilonda the title of Mwata Kazembe and was placed in charge of the conquest of the east of the Lunda Empire. After Mwata Kazembe accomplished his task and died, his successor Kanyembo decided to establish a kingdom – the Kingdom of Kazembe.
The dominance of the Lunda Empire in the Central African region would last for another two hundred years until they were overshadowed. In the 1800’s, one of the defeated people of the Lunda, the Chokwe, rose and ceded from the Empire, they then took on the Empire. In 1887, they stroke the Lunda with a humiliating defeat when they managed to kill the Mwata Yamvo, Mulaji II.
The final blow to the death of the Lunda Empire was an event that happened two years before the defeat of Mulaji II and it took place mile and miles away. In 1885, the European powers gathered in Berlin to discuss the issue of colonization of Africa and also, to discuss about the faith of the Congo. The Lunda Empire was part of the Congo which was the target of the Belgian King Leopold II. He intended to acquire it to level his Kingdoms to the other imperial powers of Germany, France, and Britain. By February 1885, King Leopold, got what he wanted. The Belgians took over Congo. Meanwhile, other parts of the Lunda Empire in Angola went to the Portuguese. While the British then took over the Zambia (known in the past as Northern Rhodesia) part of the Empire.
The Lunda Empire was another example of a flourishing African State devoured by imperialism. From a fragmented people into one of the remarkable sates in the Central African region. But it too could not stand the pressure of western imperialism. From chaos brought by its conquered people, and with the declaration of a western imperialist in Europe, the Lunda Empire fell. But its memory and its glory remained to this day in minds of the Lunda people in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
THE BEMBA KINGDOM
ORIGIN
The Bemba kingdom was established around 1650 from the Luba kingdom of Kongolo in Zaire. At the time of the migration, the leader of this group was Mukulumpe whose wife was Mumbi who according to the Bemba traditions was very beautiful because she had big ears like mushrooms. They had three sons namely Katongo, Nkole and Chiti from whom the title of the paramount Bemba chief, Chitimukulu is derived. They also had a daughter called by different names such as Bwalya Chabala or Chilufya Mulenga.
It is believed that the three notorious children wanted to build a tower which could reach heaven. They therefore, embarked on the construction of the tower using their father’s workers. The workers for a long time engaged in cutting very immerse trees and piled them together in order to reach heaven and possibly talk to God. The tower collapsed and killed many people. The three children had to flee the wrath of their father. The cause of the migration is therefore family disputes. They were accompanied by their half- brothers: Kazembe, Mumbi and Chimba also called Kapasa.
In the course of their migration after crossing the kashengeneke river, one group broke away giving rise to the Chishinga and Ngumbo who belonged to the Ngoma (Drum) clan. These settled to the west of Lake Bangweulu. Yet another group broke away, the Bisa who were given a chief by Chiti.The main group continued and crossed the Chambeshi river and settled briefly in Nsengaland under Mwanse. It is here where Chiti was killed by Mwanse, the Chewa chief for flirting with his wife. Katongo avenged the death of his brother by killing Mwanse but later died as he got choked from the smoke during the process of burning Mwanse.
The heir to the throne was a small boy, Chilufya. Therefore, Chimba took over as a regent while waiting for Chilufya to grow up. After Chilufya became a man he led his people by crossing the Chambeshi river again and settled in present day, Kasama and Chinsali. It is believed that they came across a dead crocodile as they crossed the river. This event became so important that the royal family to present is the crocodile (Ngwena) clan. The traditional ceremony is called “kusemfya pa Ngwena” (celebrating the crocodile)
SLOW PROGRESS
The Bemba occupied an area which was barren. To survive they depended on raiding their neighbours for grain. The Mambwe who are best known for growing beans suffered attacks from the Bemba. The Lungu up in the north were not spared by the war like in nature Bemba people. Needham, D.E (1984) in his book from Iron Age to Independence sums up the difficulties this ethnic group underwent. He says the Bemba made slow progress between 1650 and 1800. There were reasons for this: poor environment, a lack of natural resources, a decentralised political system and a lack of any significant external stimulus. Deedham attempts to elucidate the hostile climate surrounding the Bembaland. The soil on the plateau was poor, so farming was difficult. This is why they resorted to the “Chitemene system (a form of slash-and burn agriculture). The Bemba could not keep a lot of cattle due to tsetse fly. Only a small number of goats were reared. Furthermore, there was no iron in Lubemba. They had to buy tools from the Lungu to the north. There was therefore a shortage of trade goods in the area and the only real means of expansion was through warfare. Warfare was also encouraged by the fact that succession to the Chitimukulu chieftainship was generally decided by a civil war
EXPANSION
The Bemba kingdom started to expand in the second half of the nineteenth century. This was due to the skill and strength of two great Bemba chiefs. Chileshe Chepela came to power in 1830 to 1860. To avoid succession disputes upon the death of Chitimukulu, he restricted succession to the miti clan. This meant that they kept the Chitimukuluship into their hands and other relatives were appointed as important sub-chiefs so this made them very loyal to him. Chitapankwa another great leader (1865 to 1883) was a good warrior. He formed an economic alliance with the Arabs from whom they got guns and cannons which they used to form a regular strong army.
The Chitimukulu was a religious and ritual leader and sub-chiefs respected him as they believed he had divine powers. (Kasoma, 2002). They also participated in the long distance trade with the Swahili. As the Swahili passed through the kingdom to trade with the neighbouring Mwata Kazembe’ kingdom, they benefited as the routes passed through their kingdom. The Ngoni attacks encouraged the Bemba to unite against an external attack, they even got practice in using their guns like Chitimukulu Chileshe Chepela who fought with the Ngoni in 1856.Conquered people were assimilated into the Bemba culture to achieve unity.Bemba states were decentralised but each growing so this encouraged Chitimukulu to try and centralise from 1830 onwards so as to gain more political power which was needed for trade and food.
ORGANISATION
(a) Social
The Bemba live in villages and houses made of simple structures like poles and roofs thatched with grass. They are matrilineal and practise uxorilocal type of marriage where a man shifts to join his wife after marriage. During this period, a man is assessed and evaluated if he is capable of taking care of his wife. Assignments are given such as clearing the bush in their “chitemene farming”. (slash-and burn farming) when a girl is off age, she is secluded for a short period during which elderly women give lessons on what it takes to be a woman. This is called “Icisungu” (initiation ceremony). There is an annual event to commemorate how they moved from Kola region, another name for the Luba kingdom in Congo. All the chiefs in Zambia convene to give moral and material support to the Chitimukulu like a child celebrating their birthday. They simulate the crossing of the Chambeshi river in this event called “ukusemfya pangwena” (celebrating the crocodile) most tribes in Africa and Zambia in particular associate themselves with animals.
(b) Political
Bembas are centralised and is one tribe that introduced the idea of chieftainship from Congo. The Chitimukulu is the most important followed by chiefs and then indunas locally called ba “filolo” the Chitimukulu literally meaning big tree is the paramount chief. He is chosen by the royal establishment known as “bashi lubemba” (owners of the river). A son cannot succeed his father because they are matrilineal. In this case a nephew takes over as king upon the death of any chief.
(c) Economic
Due to the availability of rivers, they prefer fishing to farming. They use different methods of fishing like baskets and spears as well as nets. The area lacks natural resources like minerals though some traces of manganese have been discovered. They hunt in the forest and the monkey is there delicacy. They practice subsistence farming based on the chitemene system. In the rainy season, women and children collect wild fruits and insects like caterpillars.
(d) Religious
They believe in a God, the creator of heavens and earth. This “Lesa” as they call Him is the ultimate reality. He is the one to whom everything recoils. Like any another tribe in Africa, they worship ancestral spirits and believe that when a person dies, he lives behind a shade or shadow. They have tribal shrines called “mfubu”. Here they worship God and sacrifice burnt offerings or beer to placate God when there is no rainfall or there is a calamity.
DECLINE.
Decline came after the death of Chintapakwa in 1883 during the reign of Chitimukulu Sampa. He was weak as a result was overthrown by Mwamba Mulenga Chipoya. Other sub chiefs followed suit and remote tribes also revolted. The Arabs and the Swahili traded locally with the local chiefs. The kingdom was too big and monitoring became difficult. At its greatest, it expanded as far as Mporokoso.
Finally, the British South Africa Company (BSA) took over the kingdom in 1896 and introduced direct rule and later indirect rule.