By state in the strictly political sense is not meant a government or country, but rather “ a body that exercises exclusive political authority over a population in a specific territory “ (Weber). It can be democratic or of any other regime type. Three conditions follow this definition of state.
First, a state is only able to exercise its power when external and internal recognition is given to it. Meaning that there has to be an understanding of the existence of said state from people and institutions existing within its borders but also from external actors. Only by gaining recognition from all actors can a state exercise its full power. Following its recognition a state needs to possess the means to exercise its authority. State resources which usually detain this authority are national police forces, armies or legal institutions such as law courts and prisons. Authority of this form can only be attributed to states or in some cases certain international organizations, with however, very limited power of authority, i.e. Frontex or UN peacekeeping forces.
Lastly, a state is defined by its territorial boundaries. A state without a well-defined territory can have more trouble being recognized by other actors and be a source of interstate conflicts, i.e. the Arab Israeli Conflict.
States can be differentiated by their political and social structure. The political structure of a state determines the authority of the given state.There are three main political state structures: the composite, the unitary and the federal state. A composite state is a state with an internal structure consisting of a set of different states, national identities or other factors. An example for such a state is the United Kingdom (UK) post 1688, a union of kingdoms, Northern Ireland, Wales, Scotland and England. A unitary state is governed by a single centralized power (central government), which can choose to delegate some form of power to certain entities, i.e France post 1789.
A federal state, such as Germany since it’s reunification in 1990, is a state which divides and transfers part of its sovereignty and authority among territorial regions within its borders. In Germany these powers are split among the 16 Bundesländer (federated states) which Germany is composed of. The social structure of a state differentiates between nation states and multinational states. A nation state is usually organized around one core, dominant group which shares the same national identities (language, nationality, religion), i.e. France or Germany. A multinational state on the other hand is a state in which multiple national identities co-exist, i.e Belgium or the UK.
Throughout the Middle Ages, prior the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, a feudal system prevailed in Europe. Feudalism refers to an economic, political and social system which structured European societies hierarchically around social classes. With the absence of effective centralized government at the time, power struggles in Europe where mostly dominated by kingships, empires and similar local rulers. It is only in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that states as we know them today gained of real importance. 1648 pronounces the beginning of state formations in Europe.The Treaty of Westphalia, was the fist major political conference held in Europe, it marked the end of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) and conflicts over religion in Europe. A total of three peace settlements where signed to end wars between Spain and the Netherlands, between the Holy Roman Empire and France and between the Holy Roman Empire and Sweden. The Treaty of Westphalia is at the origin of the idea of a sovereign states system. Designed to be applied to all of Europe, it rejects universal authority in favour of state authority, which is an important aspect of the European process of state-formation and states’ significance in politics. It further describes all states as being formally equal and emphasizes the principle of non-intervention in affairs of other states. Westphalia allowed for states to hold sovereignty over non-state entities, such as the Catholic Church, to be recognized as sovereign by other states and introduced the starting point for state dominance in politics.
Following the Treaty of Westphalia state formation in Europe was dominated by two periods, early and late state formation. States included in the early state formation where France or the UK as opposed to Germany or Italy which formed later due to late industrialization. But even within each period states followed different processes. While the British state formation was mostly marked by a territorial struggle between the different national identities (Scotland, Wales, England, (Northern) Ireland) the regime type was settled to a constitutional monarchy in 1688 and remained stable from then on. In France on the other hand, the transition was characterized by profoundly unstable regimes but without territorial border changes.
Following its settlement, sociocultural and religious conflict emerged in the UK between the different national entities (Northern Ireland, Scotland, England and Wales) which led to increased border instability. Throughout the state formation process however, political accommodation was included. Meaning that, in contrast to France, where political assimilation was favoured and cultural minorities disregarded, the UK made an effort to keep each national identity present and well represented in politics.
The French state formation started in 1789 with the french Revolution, which led to many revolutions and 10 regime changes. While the territorial borders where clear France’s regime changed from monarchies to empires to republics until it settled to the 5th republic in 1958.
The Revolution of 1789 also had a Europe-wide impact, as one of the influencing factors of the European Spring of 1848. After 1789 European populations increasingly raised the issue of state sovereignty which enabled state-formations in Europe.
Germany’s and Italy’s state formation only followed in the 1870’s to 1900’s, post industrialisation. Both countries where late developers but Germany was far more successful in its industrialisation mainly due to its state intervention in production decision and active trade unions. While Italy encountered political division between left and right as well as a cleavage between the north and south of the country.
The four countries are important to mention not only to understand the different state-formations which took place in Europe but also because of their historical importance and implications in the European Union (EU) and leading role in its construction (except for the UK). Europe’s construction (and that of it’s member states) helps to understand how power dynamics between states have changed over the last decades of European integration and if the emergence of international organization such as the EU has had an effect on states’ importance in politics.
In this example, members states agreed to transfer part of their sovereignty to the EU to be part of it. In this sense, European countries weakened their own decision power, which could be perceived as them becoming less relevant in politics individually. On the other hand, the EU might allow for European states to be more influential in international politics as many of its member states have very little political say when standing alone (i.e. Malta vs. The United States is probably not as influential as The EU vs. The United States).
With Europe’s 2004 enlargement (10 new member states) however, emerged the rise of eurscepticism among European citizens and governments, i.e Brexit in the UK and far right moments in France and Eastern Europe. Euroscepticism challenges European integration and cooperation, hence weakens its international political standing. Reaffirming state’s individual sovereignty at the cost of the EU’s expansion of power. This demonstrates that even though European state’s have given up part of their sovereignty to the EU, there is an active will in Europe for states to be the main actors in European politics.
Unlike the United Nations or World Trade Organization, where resolution are advisory and not mandatory, every European member state has to implement EU laws. If considered this way states’ political power are more restricted in the EU than in other international organizations, but in reality EU laws are sometimes disregarded by its member states, which further indicates that some states’ intention to reaffirm their sovereignty.
Since its legitimacy is often questioned, it makes it hard for an organization like the EU to be a respected dominant figure in international politics. The EU today therefore does not yet have as strong an impact on its states’ power as some might want to believe.
Lastly, Considering the Balance of Power between states I believe that natural power dynamics between weaker and stronger states will dictate and create alliances among nations which could lead to weaker states losing their sovereignty to stronger ones, with or without the existence of institutions like the EU. The Balance of Power theory states that in international relations weaker states will side with the strongest states to assure their defence if they can not do so independently. Even without international organizations some states’ could be less irrelevant in politics that others due to an unequal division of power among states.
Lastly, a state is defined by its territorial boundaries. A state without a well-defined territory can have more trouble being recognized by other actors and be a source of interstate conflicts, i.e. the Arab Israeli Conflict.
States can be differentiated by their political and social structure. The political structure of a state determines the authority of the given state.There are three main political state structures: the composite, the unitary and the federal state. A composite state is a state with an internal structure consisting of a set of different states, national identities or other factors. An example for such a state is the United Kingdom (UK) post 1688, a union of kingdoms, Northern Ireland, Wales, Scotland and England. A unitary state is governed by a single centralized power (central government), which can choose to delegate some form of power to certain entities, i.e France post 1789.
A federal state, such as Germany since it’s reunification in 1990, is a state which divides and transfers part of its sovereignty and authority among territorial regions within its borders. In Germany these powers are split among the 16 Bundesländer (federated states) which Germany is composed of. The social structure of a state differentiates between nation states and multinational states. A nation state is usually organized around one core, dominant group which shares the same national identities (language, nationality, religion), i.e. France or Germany. A multinational state on the other hand is a state in which multiple national identities co-exist, i.e Belgium or the UK.
Throughout the Middle Ages, prior the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, a feudal system prevailed in Europe. Feudalism refers to an economic, political and social system which structured European societies hierarchically around social classes. With the absence of effective centralized government at the time, power struggles in Europe where mostly dominated by kingships, empires and similar local rulers. It is only in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that states as we know them today gained of real importance. 1648 pronounces the beginning of state formations in Europe.The Treaty of Westphalia, was the fist major political conference held in Europe, it marked the end of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) and conflicts over religion in Europe. A total of three peace settlements where signed to end wars between Spain and the Netherlands, between the Holy Roman Empire and France and between the Holy Roman Empire and Sweden. The Treaty of Westphalia is at the origin of the idea of a sovereign states system. Designed to be applied to all of Europe, it rejects universal authority in favour of state authority, which is an important aspect of the European process of state-formation and states’ significance in politics. It further describes all states as being formally equal and emphasizes the principle of non-intervention in affairs of other states. Westphalia allowed for states to hold sovereignty over non-state entities, such as the Catholic Church, to be recognized as sovereign by other states and introduced the starting point for state dominance in politics.
Following the Treaty of Westphalia state formation in Europe was dominated by two periods, early and late state formation. States included in the early state formation where France or the UK as opposed to Germany or Italy which formed later due to late industrialization. But even within each period states followed different processes. While the British state formation was mostly marked by a territorial struggle between the different national identities (Scotland, Wales, England, (Northern) Ireland) the regime type was settled to a constitutional monarchy in 1688 and remained stable from then on. In France on the other hand, the transition was characterized by profoundly unstable regimes but without territorial border changes.
Following its settlement, sociocultural and religious conflict emerged in the UK between the different national entities (Northern Ireland, Scotland, England and Wales) which led to increased border instability. Throughout the state formation process however, political accommodation was included. Meaning that, in contrast to France, where political assimilation was favoured and cultural minorities disregarded, the UK made an effort to keep each national identity present and well represented in politics.
The French state formation started in 1789 with the french Revolution, which led to many revolutions and 10 regime changes. While the territorial borders where clear France’s regime changed from monarchies to empires to republics until it settled to the 5th republic in 1958.
The Revolution of 1789 also had a Europe-wide impact, as one of the influencing factors of the European Spring of 1848. After 1789 European populations increasingly raised the issue of state sovereignty which enabled state-formations in Europe.
Germany’s and Italy’s state formation only followed in the 1870’s to 1900’s, post industrialisation. Both countries where late developers but Germany was far more successful in its industrialisation mainly due to its state intervention in production decision and active trade unions. While Italy encountered political division between left and right as well as a cleavage between the north and south of the country.
The four countries are important to mention not only to understand the different state-formations which took place in Europe but also because of their historical importance and implications in the European Union (EU) and leading role in its construction (except for the UK). Europe’s construction (and that of it’s member states) helps to understand how power dynamics between states have changed over the last decades of European integration and if the emergence of international organization such as the EU has had an effect on states’ importance in politics.
In this example, members states agreed to transfer part of their sovereignty to the EU to be part of it. In this sense, European countries weakened their own decision power, which could be perceived as them becoming less relevant in politics individually. On the other hand, the EU might allow for European states to be more influential in international politics as many of its member states have very little political say when standing alone (i.e. Malta vs. The United States is probably not as influential as The EU vs. The United States).
With Europe’s 2004 enlargement (10 new member states) however, emerged the rise of eurscepticism among European citizens and governments, i.e Brexit in the UK and far right moments in France and Eastern Europe. Euroscepticism challenges European integration and cooperation, hence weakens its international political standing. Reaffirming state’s individual sovereignty at the cost of the EU’s expansion of power. This demonstrates that even though European state’s have given up part of their sovereignty to the EU, there is an active will in Europe for states to be the main actors in European politics.
Unlike the United Nations or World Trade Organization, where resolution are advisory and not mandatory, every European member state has to implement EU laws. If considered this way states’ political power are more restricted in the EU than in other international organizations, but in reality EU laws are sometimes disregarded by its member states, which further indicates that some states’ intention to reaffirm their sovereignty.
Since its legitimacy is often questioned, it makes it hard for an organization like the EU to be a respected dominant figure in international politics. The EU today therefore does not yet have as strong an impact on its states’ power as some might want to believe.
Lastly, Considering the Balance of Power between states I believe that natural power dynamics between weaker and stronger states will dictate and create alliances among nations which could lead to weaker states losing their sovereignty to stronger ones, with or without the existence of institutions like the EU. The Balance of Power theory states that in international relations weaker states will side with the strongest states to assure their defence if they can not do so independently. Even without international organizations some states’ could be less irrelevant in politics that others due to an unequal division of power among states.