The United Kingdom was the first country in Europe to develop a limited monarchy, achieved gradually so as to maintain stability. Truly the name “Great Britain” applies to her many accomplishments. Britain is adjusting to its new reality as one European country among many, and yet the nation’s influence remains strong. In this strength still lies challenges to its sovereignty from internal calls for independence from Scotland to a Brexit from the European Union. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland continues to maintain one of the most influential and powerful political systems in the world, but still has ways to go.
SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY and POWER
Great Britain has the oldest democratic tradition of any country in the world, and as a result, has many sources of authority and power that provide stability and legitimacy. The legitimacy of the government has developed gradually, so that today tradition is a primary source of stability. Although the tradition includes a monarchy, the limitation of the king’s power began early. Today most British citizens accept democracy as a basic component of their government. With the notable exception of Protestant/Catholic conflicts in Northern Ireland, most British citizens accept a church/state relationship in which the church does not challenge the authority of the government. Ironically, the country that influenced the development of so many other modern democracies has never had a written constitution as such. Instead, the “constitution” has evolved over time, with important documents, common law, legal codes, and customs combining to form what is often called the “Constitution of the Crown.” There are two important documents that are central to the British “constitution”. The first is the Magna Carta, a document sign by King John agreeing to consult nobles before he made important political decisions, especially those regarding taxes. The Magna Carta forms the basis of limited government that places restrictions on the power of monarchs. The second important document is the Bill of Rights. This document is not like the American Bill of Rights, because it lists rights retained by Parliament, not by individual citizens.
Other characteristics of the political culture include noblesse oblige and social class. Although the influence of social class on political attitudes is not as strong as it has been in the past, a very important tradition in British politics is noblesse oblige, the duty of the upper classes to take responsibility for the welfare of the lower classes. The custom dates to feudal times when lords protected their serfs and their land in return for labor. Today, noblesse oblige is reflected in the general willingness of the British to accept a welfare state. During the 1980s, Margaret Thatcher’s government brought this willingness into question by cutting social services significantly. However, some of these services have been restored in recent years.
Political and Economic Change
Political change in Britain has always been characterized by its gradual nature. Gradualism in turn established strong traditions. This process helps to explain the transition in policy-making power from the king to Parliament. There was a gradual acceptance of a “House of Lords,” and as commercialism created towns and a new middle class, eventually the establishment of a “House of Commons.” Both were created through evolution, not revolution. Of course, there are important “marker events” that demonstrate the growing power of Parliament the signing of the Magna Carta, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution but the process was gradual and set strong traditions as it developed.
Despite the overall pattern of gradualism, Britain’s political system has had to adjust to internal economic changes, as well as international crises. Some sources of change have been the Industrial Revolution, imperialistic aspirations, the two world wars of the 20th century, and the economic crisis of the 1970s. These events have had significant consequences for Britain’s political system.
Margaret Thatcher blamed the weakened economy on the socialist policies set in place by the government after World War II. Her policies were further influenced by a distinct movement left by the Labour Party that gave a great deal of power to labor unions. In response, she privatized business and industry, cut back on social welfare programs, strengthened national defense, got tough with the labor unions, and returned to market force controls on the economy. She was a controversial prime minister for eleven years. Her supporters believed her to be the capable and firm “Iron Lady”, but her critics felt that her policies made economic problems worse and that her personality further divided the country. Thatcher resigned office in 1990 when other Conservative Party leaders challenged her leadership.
After the jolts of the economic crisis of the 1970s and Margaret Thatcher’s firm redirection of the political system to the right, moderation again became characteristic of political change in Britain. Thatcher’s hand-picked successor, John Major, at first followed her policies, but later moderating them by abolishing Thatcher’s poll tax, reconciling with the European Union, and slowing social cutbacks and privatization. The Conservative Party retained the majority in the 1993 parliamentary elections, but only by a very slim margin. Then, in 1997, Labour’s gradual return in the center was rewarded with the election of Tony Blair, who promised to create a “New Labour” Party and rule in a “third way” a centrist alternative to the old Labour Party on the left and the Conservative Party on the right.
CITIZEN, STATE and SOCIETY
In many ways, Britain is a homogeneous culture. English is spoken by virtually all British citizens, and only about 5% of Britain’s population of 60 million are ethnic minorities. The major social cleavages that shape the way the political system works are based on multi-national identities, social class distinctions, and the Protestant/Catholic split in Northern Ireland. In recent years some critics believe that new tensions are developing regarding Muslim minorities.
The “United Kingdom” evolved from four different nations: England, Wales, Scotland, and part of Ireland. England consists of the southern 2/3 of the island, and until the 16th century, did not rule any of the other lands. By the 18th century, England ruled the entire island, and became known as “Great Britain.” In the early 20th century, Northern Ireland was added, creating the “United Kingdom.” These old kingdoms still have strong national identities that greatly impact the British political system.
Distinctions between rich and poor have always been important in Britain, with the most important distinction today being between working and middle class people. The two classes are not easily divided by income, but psychologically and subjectively, the gulf between them is still wide. German sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf explains the divide in terms of solidarity, particularly among the working class. The sense is that keeping the old job and living in the old neighborhood the sense of family and friends is more important than individual success.
More evidence in the division of class can be seen in the education system. Public schools were originally intended to train boys for “public life” in the military, civil service, or politics. They are expensive, and they have educated young people to continue after their parents as members of the ruling elite. A large number of Britain’s elite have gone to “public” boarding. Middle classes commonly attend private grammar schools, where students wear uniforms but do not live in. The most important portal to the elite classes is through Oxford and Cambridge Universities, or Oxbridge. Since World War II, more scholarships have been available to Oxbridge, so that more working and middle class youths may attend the elite schools. Also, the number of other universities has grown, so that higher education is more widespread than before. Still, university attendance in Britain is much lower than in other industrialized democracies.
Because of tight immigration restrictions in the past, most ethnic minorities are young, with about half of the population under the age of 25. The growth in percentages of minorities has grown despite the restrictions that were placed on further immigration during the Thatcher administration of the 1980s. Immigration restrictions are currently under debate, but the Labour government has allowed the restrictions to remain in place. Britain has often been accused of adjusting poorly to their new ethnic population. Reports abound of unequal treatment by the police and physical and verbal harassment by citizens. Today there is some evidence that whites are leaving London to settle in surrounding suburban areas, resulting in a higher percentage of minority population living in London. Despite this segregation, the mixed race population appears to be increasing, with the census of 2001 offering for the first time in British history a category for mixed race people.
Not surprisingly, British newspapers reflect social class divisions. They are sharply divided between quality news and comment that appeals to the middle and upper class, and mass circulation tabloids that carry sensational news. Radio and television came to life during the collective consensus era, so originally they were monopolized by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The BBC sought to educate citizens, and it was usually respectful of government officials. Commercial television was introduced in the 1950s, and now there are five stations that compete, as well as cable. A variety of radio stations also exist. Despite the competition from private companies, the government strictly regulates the BBC and the commercial stations. For example, no advertisements may be sold to politicians, parties, or political causes.
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND VALUES
In the early 1960s political scientists Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba wrote that the “civic culture” (political culture) in Britain was characterized by trust, deference to authority and competence, pragmatism, and harmony. The economic crisis of the 1970s and the continuing conflicts regarding Northern Ireland have challenged this view of citizenship in Britain, but the overall characteristics seem to still be in place today.
British citizens reflect what Almond and Verba saw as good qualities for democratic participation: high percentages of people that vote in elections, acceptance of authority, tolerance for different points of view, and acceptance of the rules of the game. However, social and economic changes during the 1970s altered these characteristics so that today British citizens are less supportive of the collective consensus and more inclined to values associated with a free market economy. Many observers believe that the obdurate “politics of protest” or the tendency to disagree openly and sometimes violently with the government have become increasingly acceptable.
Some manifestations of changing political beliefs and values include decreasing support for labor unions. British labor unions have strong roots in the Industrial Revolution, and class solidarity supports union membership. However, when unions staged crippling strikes during the 1970s, public opinion turned against them, as people began to view unions as “bullies” to both the government and the general population. Margaret Thatcher’s tough stance against the unions intensified strife between unions and the Conservative government. Thatcherism also depicts a significant change in political beliefs. The Conservative Party controlled British government from 1979 until 1997. Although later modified by Prime Minister John Major, Margaret Thatcher’s “revolution” toward a free market economy certainly affected political attitudes. She rejected collectivism and its emphasis on the redistribution of resources from rich to poor and government responsibility for full employment. Thatcherism fostered entrepreneurial values of individualism and competition over the solidarity of social classes and the tradition of noblesse oblige.
25.02.2019