Workplace learning has become an important aspect of many university degree courses. There has been an evolution in the theoretical underpinning associated with such learning to help all stakeholders better understand the myriad of ways in which employability is taught and experienced.
In order to demonstrate an awareness of key theoretical insights of workplace learning and employability, this essay will indicate how theory can be applied into learning and understanding how certain key models and concepts can help to develop personal employability in a practical way. The key concepts that will be discussed are; the transformational learning theory, experiential learning theory, social cognitive theory and Dunn and Dunns (1978, 1992a, 1992b) learning styles model.
Within the discussion of the key concepts firstly; each key model will be defined, in order to give the reader a better understanding of what is being explained, secondly the model will be discussed with relevance to workplace learning and employability, and finally how each key concept wil aid in the process in benefiting a student to be more employable.
Introduction to work place learning
According to Lee et al (2004) in recent years there has been big interest among employers, researchers, and policy makers in what compromises learning and how this now can be facilitated within workplaces. With now many areas of research in which learning at and through work is a central concern.
Workplace learning can often be categorized, conceptualised and promoted for both employers and employees and the government. With reference to literature it is understood as a promise of improvements in performance and productivity (Aston & Sung, 2002); Mathews (1999) addition to this it is to create opportunities for personal and professional development, with the promise of job satisfaction and self-fulfilment. Work place learning can later be fined by Garrick (2000) as:
“a site of learning associated with two quite different purposes…The first is the development of the enterprise through contributing to production, effectiveness and innovation; the second is the development of individuals through contributing to knowledge, skills and capacity to further their own learning” (Garrick, 2000).
To make sense of this, work place learning contributes to two factors, firstly it the idea that the employee can benefit the organising and its goals by offering knowledge and skill that has been learnt over the years, and secondly is the development of personal achievement, in forms of knowledge, skill, furthering one’s own capacity of learning. These benefits attract employers and see work place learning as a significant and beneficial investment to a workforce (Lee et al, 2004).
Employability
“During this decade, attention to research and practice in employability has increased specifically in the United Kingdom and Europe” (McQuaid & Lindsay, 2005, pg 197).
Employability is central to strategic direction of the department for education and employment. From Hillage and Pollard’s (1998) project there key findings on employability were that “employability is about having the capability gain initial employment, maintain employment and obtain new employment if required.” They suggest that for the individual, employability depends on several key factors, these include; their assets in terms of knowledge, skills and attitude they possess and the way in which they use and deploy them. Secondly the way in which an employee present themselves to employers and crucially the context within which they see work.
According to McQuaid and Lindsay (2005) employability can be explained in a range of different context, in a straight forward dictionary definition employability is defined as “the character of quality of being employable”. Consequently a more working definition of employability as understood by employers, as primarily the characteristic of an individual exceeds employable.
The Confederation of British Industry (CBI) has defined employability thus:
“Employability is the possession by any individual of the qualities and competencies required to meet changing needs of employers and customers and thereby help to realise his or her aspirations and potential in work” (CBI, 1999, pg 1)
Concluding this, the UK government has similarly arrived at a definition that, although employability is crucial for the needs of the government, the centre of focus is primarily on individual’s skills and development. Thus they later explain that:
“Employability means the development of skills and adaptable workforces in which all those capable of work are encouraged to develop the skills, knowledge, technology and adaptability to enable them to enter and remain in employment throughout their working lives” (HM Treasury, 1997, pg 1).
What makes an employable student?
For university student it is key to understand, that employers who are able to survive and satisfy organisations are the ones who are most up to date with knowledge, skills and capabilities. (Thijssen, Van der Heijden and Rocco, 2008). Universities has equipped students for the world of work by developing and articulating coherent polices and frameworks to build graduate attributes within the across programmes (Tempone and Martin, 2003). With this being said university offers student to be the up most dated workforce out their due to them being newly qualified, with all the new knowledge and skills which is needed in the working world, making them most employable.
With regards to employers and what they believe makes a student employable are they expect graduates to have skills in analytic problem solving skills, a level of business awareness or real life experience and basic accountant skills. Employers also expect oral communication skills, ethical awareness, and professional skills such as teamwork, written communication and an understanding of the nature of business (Kavanagh, 2008).
Following on from the employers view on good employable characteristics, Kavanagh (2008) study found student rated continuous learning as the most important skill to focus careers, and in terms of the Jones and Sin (2003) model, were focused on:
“developing routine technical expertise, oral and written communication skills, analytic and problem solving skills, and appreciative skills including decision making and critical thinking” (Kavanagh, 2008. Pg 17).
Therefore between the two it is obvious that there is some agreement between students and employers in terms of skills required regarding success in the business world i.e. analytic/problem solving skills, oral and written communication skills, teamwork and continuous learning. With this being said the links between the employers and graduates seem very promising for the future of employability and the skills that are most looked at.
Transformational learning theory
Taylor (2012) proposes how there is an instinctive drive among all humans to make meaning of daily life. Due to there being no truths, and change is always happening, it can never be assured what we already know or believe. Therefore it becomes imperative within adulthood to develop a more critical worldwide view, in order to better understand our world. This involves “how to negotiate and act upon our own purposes, values, feelings and meanings rather than those we have uncritically assimilated from others” (Mezirow, 2000, pg 8).
Taylor (2007) explains the “transformational theory as characteristics of relationship and critical reflection”. In order to understanding the transformational learning theory, first the concepts of both transformation and learning can be explained as; Transformation defined as, the meaning of learning experiences, how we interpret life learning experiences, to make meaning of it and to change the beliefs, attitudes or an entire view (Reisinger, 2013). Secondly learning is explained as the process of developing new interpretations or revised interpretation of the meaning of past experiences which guides are future behaviour (Reisinger, 2013).
“learning is understood as the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action” (Mezirow 1996: 162).
Additionally when regarding both concepts as one thus characterises the transformational learning theory. The Transformational Learning Theory originally developed by Jack Mezirow is described as being “constructivist, an orientation which holds that the way learners interpret and reinterpret their sense experience is, central to making meaning and hence learning” (Mezirow, 1991). This suggest that experiences are crucial in order for there to be meaning, this then allows you to learn from them.
Correspondingly, it considers how people understand and interpret life experiences, critically examining their assumptions and beliefs, whom later revise and reflect on these assumptions and beliefs until they have been transformed (Reisinger, 2013). In simple terms this is the reflection of life experiences which enable you to become more knowledgeable and allows you to learn from and change, for better. Mezirow (1991, p11) follows on from this by suggesting that in transformational learning, individuals ‘”reinterpret and old or new experience from a new set of expectations, thus giving a new meaning and perspective to an old experience”.
When regarding employability and workplace learning, the transformational learning theory can benefit a student in multiple ways. Kiely (2004) proposes this by referring Mezirows transformative modal is useful for explaining the impact of learning on behalf of students, civic, moral and intellectual learning development, the theory aids in the process of being employable by that it teaches life lessons which can be then taken forward into the working world. These life lessons all come from experiences, which the transformation learning theory help analyse, and reflect on the past critically to benefit future experiences. Mezirow (1995) can conclude this by suggesting the theory contains significant learning processes such as; identifying problematic ideas, values, beliefs, and feelings, being able to critically examine the assumptions that are made, testing their justification through rational discourse and making decisions based upon the findings. Thus critical reflection becomes a beacon for a learner’s growth, independence, responsibility, ownership, and self-direction.
Thus therefore making clear that students will benefit greatly from the theory as reflection is crucial within learning, helping students to reflect and establish links between previous knowledge and new knowledge, and effectively making connections between what was known and what is known now. Resulting in rational questions such as “how is my thinking changing?, why is it important?, how does this fit with what I already know?” (Evans eet al, 2008).
Taylor (2007) supports the transformational learning theory as a beneficial factor, aiding the process of learning. This is seen when he suggests that Transformative learning was found to be effective at capturing the process which makes up an adults idea of meaning, and in essence confirming that critical reflection is an essential process of learning. Mezirow and Taylor (2009) “have found that reflection is crucial for helping learners move from espousing new methodology toward implementing it in a reflective manner”.
Experiential learning theory
The experiential learning theory defined learning as:
“The process whereby knowledge is created through transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of gasping and transformational experience” (Kolb, 1984, pg 41).
The ELT provides a holistic model of the learning process and a multilinear model of adult development, both of which are consistent with what we know about how people learn, grow and develop (Kolb et al, 1999). To understand the model it is split into four stages with two dialectically relating. The first two are relations of experience; concrete experience and abstract conceptualization. However the second two relate to transforming experience; reflective observation and active experimentation.
According to Kolb et al (1999) learners require abilities that are polar opposites, within grasping experience, some perceive new information through experiencing the concrete, tangible, felt qualities, relying on the senses and immersing in concrete reality. Thus signifying the ‘realistic’ people who have to have hard evidence to conceptualise an experience. On the other hand there are other people who tend to take in new information through symbolic representation or abstract conceptualisation – thinking about analysing or systematically planning, rather than using the reality as a guide. The two differences are that the people who are relevant to concrete experience are classed as doers and favour active experimentation, likewise people who relate to abstract conceptualisation – the watchers, favour reflective observation. As humans we chose a preferred process due to our past life experiences, hereditary equipment and present environment.
According to Mainemeis et al (1999) we resolve the conflict between both concrete or abstract and active or reflective in some sort of pattern/characteristic way. Which is explained as ‘learning styles’. Similarly the learning styles interlock with the concepts of the experiential learning theory, again by formulating ones learning styles with past experiences and preferred learning style. Firstly individuals who have the preferred experiential learning style, concrete experience and reflective observation. These individuals are labelled as ‘diverging’ due to them performing well in situations that call for generations of ideas i.e. brainstorming. According to Kolb and Kolb (2005) the characteristics the people with ‘diverging’ learning style are known to have; broad culture interests and like to gather information, interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and prefer to work within groups, as they listen with open minds.
Likewise, individuals who show dominant characteristics of abstract conceptualisation and reflective observation as their learning style usually show individualities as; they are best at understanding a wide range of information with which they put into a logical form, they are generally disconnected from other people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts, and they find it more important that theory has logical soundness rather than practical value. The people with this specific learning capacity prefer readings, lectures, exploring lytical models and having time to think thigs through (Kolg and Kolb, 2005).
Experiential learning occurs when students are “unintentionally instructive” (US Congruence, 1995, pg 22). The concepts is used when students observe how things are done in the workplace, reflect on those which they then make critical assumptions on how to use the observations, with regards to making decisions that will benefit their working future. “Experience is the best teacher” (US Congruence, 1995, pg 22). Workplace learning aids in the process of experiential learning, which universities use these opportunities to help get students familiar with the working world, by supplementing it with exercises that help students reflect on their exercise.
A way in which universities help a student reflect on experiences when on a workplace learning programme is by advising students to keep a written journal. This enables a student to reflect on everything that they undertake, the benefits and weaknesses, and prepares them to deal with problems or optimize the success, by reflecting on what they learn. This helps a student in becoming employable, due to them having the experiences that occur within the working world, also giving them the tools to deal with problems that may occur, which has been learnt from workplace learning and experiential learning reflection.
Social cognitive theory
In order to understand the social cognitive theory firstly, the concept of cognitive must be defined. Groome (2013) defines this as the psychology of mental processes…the way In which the brain works and processes information, concerning the way in which we as humans take in information from the world and how we then make sense of the information, resulting in the way we use this information.
When discussing the process of the social cognitive theory the three factors; behaviour, environment and personal, all interlink with each other, casing learning to occur. Sincero (2011) suggest that the personals environment (intrinsic) includes human beliefs, stressful environment, ideas and cognitive are competencies are taught by external factors such as parents. Secondly the behaviour interaction comes from previous experiences, these experiences can modify the way one thinks which resulting in the behaviour of a person. And finally the behaviour of an external environment (extrinsic) alters the way you portray your behaviours. Your behaviours can affect your environment also. With all this being explained, the social cognitive theory states that new experiences are to be evaluated by the learner by analysing and surveying the past experiences. Suggesting that learning therefore is a result of an evaluation of the present experiences versus the past (Sincero, 2011).
According to Sincero (2011) the social learning theory can be split into two categories, the first being A) observational learning and the second being B) the modelling process of these observations, both effecting the capabilities of ones learning habits. Firstly the concept of observation learning, this is as stated the process of learning through the method of observing. Using Banduras (1961) model involving children it is found that, children observe people around them that consequently results them encoding their behaviour, this is then brought through adult life and develops ones behaviours.
Following the observational learning the modelling process begins, this process helps understand the methods of how one learnings effectively. These methods start with attention, this implies that you must pay attention to learn. Secondly, retention of the newly learned behaviour, this is the process of going back and retaining the information found. Thirdly reproduction, this is simply how one reproduces behaviours that have been learnt through the observations of others, Sincero (2011) stresses how the practice of this behaviour by repeatedly doing it is important for improvement. And finally, motivation, this is the idea that to keep on performing you need to be motivated in what you are doing.
In order for one to successfully learn and achieve self-efficiency is crucial, this is concerned with people’s beliefs in their capabilities to perform a specific action required to attain a desired outcome Luszczynska and Schwarzer (2005). Concluding this and according to Kirch (2008) the social cognitive learning theories most important factor for behavioural change is a person’s self-belief or more commonly known as ‘self-efficiency’, and the issues of convincing them themselves that they can successfully achieve their desired outcome. Following on from this Luszczynska and Schwarzer (2005) stets that another concluding factor in the process of learning, “outcome expectancies are the other core construct of the social cognitive theory which are concerned with people’s beliefs about the possible consequences of their actions”. Subsequently resulting in the one’s self efficiency being low.
Nikos and Hagger (2005) support Kirch’s (2008), Luszczynska and Schwarzer (2005) statements by concluding that self-efficiency was raised from several sources, and that a person’s confidence or subjective belief in their abilities affect their behaviour or actions, which consequently comes down to previous performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states.
Relating the social cognitive theory to workplace learning and employability. Workplace learning acts as the learning process which that a student can learn from. They can learn how to react to a variety of situations through vicarious learning rather than reading through books, it allows people to engage within real situations (staff, 2012). As explained previously learning begins with the process of observation, with this being said the workplace learning allows a student to observe the ways in which work is carried out, in terms of good practice and bad practice. Consequently with the observation within the workplace, a student can then reproduce what is being taught and carry it out successfully. Through the process of reproduction a student will gain confidence with what is being taught, resulting in the self-efficiency of the practices becoming more and more successful. Using the workplace learning as a metaphor for banduras (1961) theory of parent teaching good habit’s to a child.
“It is a “self-fulfilling prophecy” of sorts – employees who believe they will be able to do something successfully often go on to be successful at the activity in question” (staff, 2012, pg 1).
Subsequent if a student relates positive situations and behaviours that have been learnt from workplace learning, it gives them the knowledge and attitudes that are needed when being employed. Leong and Watts (2014) conclude this by suggesting that workplace learning gives young people the skills and experience that an employer needs, subsequently boosting ones employability.
Dunn and Dunns learning styles
Rita and Kenneth Dunn’s (1978, 1992a, 1992b) learning style model is said to be one of the oldest and mostly widely used approach. Their model came from their work within schools and the different way in which students respond to their instructed material. From their findings certain students preferred to learn on their own and others preferred to learn in groups or from the teacher. Form their study they identified five key themes on which student learning styles differed: 1) environmental, 2) emotional support, 3) sociological composition, 4) physiological, 5) psychological elements.
In terms of environment Dunn and Dunn (1978) noted that students differed in terms of environmental location and ideal place to learn. Some preferred warm, brightly lit places, with a number of people and verbal interaction, wear as others preferred cooler, with less lighting with a quieter, more informal environment. Dunn and Dunn (1992a) follows this by suggesting that teachers believe that they have no control over the environmental elements, and describe that a classroom can be separated into sections with different environmental climates.
The second dimension Dunn and Dunn (1978) talks about is the emotional factors (emotional support), this focuses around the extent to which students are self-learners. From one end of the scale there are learners who can be given projects that they comfortably monitor themselves until it is done. And at the other end are students who need a considerable amount of support. For these students’ long assignments with no period checks with teachers becomes a struggle. Dunn and Dunn (1992a) explains how a teachers understanding of their students is crucial in order to assist them successfully learning and completing tasks.
In terms of sociological factors, this dimension links to peer interaction. Dunn and Dunn (1978) categorise students to either, dislike group projects and prefer to learn by themselves; or instead thrive on interaction and support of a group. Likewise others prefer the more traditional approach of leaning from teachers. Dunn and Dunn (1992b) explains how teachers can conceptualizes on these preferences by varying teaching techniques that are based on the different preferred styles of learning.
According to the Dunns the most important element of the dimensions physiological preferences. The factors that this dimension look at are that; some students work visually while others prefer auditory learning, the ability to be on their feet or not, and timing for example, some are morning people while other function better later on in the day. Dunn and Dunne (1992b) propose that teachers accommodate this dimension by offering more practical ways of learning. This is the hardest for teachers to accommodate.
The fifth and final dimension the Dunns refer to is the second strand of psychological learning, referring to general strategies students use when attacking problems. Dunn and Dunn (1978) suggest that some attack problems by looking at the big picture, while others prefer to address problems separately. Consequently some students will jump straight into problems figuring the out as they go along, and at the other end of the spectrum, others are more reflective and need to plan before they begin (Dunn and Dunn, 1992b).
The Dunn and Dunn (1999) model “prescribes that all individuals have specific learning styles and this differs from person to person, and each person has learning styles and strengths”
With this being said, and with reference to employability, the Dunns model identifies key agendas that explain how students suite specific learning environments styles. Therefore when becoming employed, one will already know the ways in which they prefer to work. Workplace learning and education gives the platform to understand ones preferred learning styles and capabilities. This then enables an employee to understand the type of job they will succeed in and the jobs that they would struggle in. finally it gives insights to an employee’s learning capabilities, strengths and weaknesses, therefor working in favour of an employee, due to them understanding the strengths and weaknesses that they possess for the working world.
In conclusion all key concepts through the paper discuss the ways in which a student can use workplace learning and techniques as platforms in becoming more employable. Discussing how to observe learning, reflect and to become efficient within the working world. Also explaining the ways in which preferred learning styles benefit certain roles of employment.