Chapter II: Review of Literature
Motivation
Johnstone (1999, p. 146), considers motivation as a stimulant for achieving a specific target. Similarly, according to Ryan & Deci (2000), to be motivated means to progress or to be in motion to do something.
Crump (1995) believes that excitement, interest, keenness, and enthusiasm towards learning are the main constituents of motivation.
The levels and kinds of motivation in any individual are different from others. In other words, not only levels and amounts of motivation in individuals are different, their kinds of motivation can be also different.
Cook (2000) comes across that language acquisition is not the same in learners. Moreover, it has been proposed and recommended that there are three main factors, which concern and influence the Second Language Acquisition; These three factors are age, personality, and motivation. He further claims that among the above three issues motivation is the most significant one in second language acquisition. (Ellis 1994, p. 715) considers motivation as the attempt which learners make for learning a second language because of “their need or desire to learn it”. Lightbrown and Spada (2001, p. 33) identifies motivation in second language acquisition as “a complex phenomenon which can be defined in terms of two factors: learners’ communicative needs and their attitudes towards the second language community”. They believe that when learners think that they need to speak the second language with the aim of being in touch with others or accomplishing and achieving specialized and dedicated desires and goals, they will be stimulated and inspired to obtain expertise and skill in it. Gardner and Lambert (1972) name the mentioned situation as integrative motivation and instrumental motivation.
Research has confirmed that the success or failure in second language learning depends very much on these two kinds of motivation (Lightbrown & Spada, 2001).
Motivation Theories
Three schools of thought, behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism present each one their theories about motivation.
Behaviorists like Pavlov, Skinner, and Thorndike center their human behavior theories on motivation. From their perspective they see motivation in matter of facts (Brown, 2007, p.168) we move to attain reinforcement based on previous positive reinforcement moved by previous experiences of reward for behavior.
Cognitivists see motivation emphasized on the decisions of the individual, "the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect" (Keller, 1983, p. 389). According to some psychologists there are underlying needs that drive us to our decisions (Brown, 2007). For instance the six needs undergirding the construct of motivation identified by Ausubel (1968, pp. 368-379).
a. The need for exploration, for seeing "the other side of the mountain," for probing the unknown
b. The need for manipulation, for operating-to use Skinner's term-on the environment and causing change
c. The need for activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental
d. The need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the environment, by other people, or by ideas, thoughts, and feelings
e. The need for knowledge, the need to process and internalize the results of exploration, manipulation, activity, and stimulation, to resolve contradictions, to quest for solutions to problems and for self-consistent systems of knowledge
f. Finally, the need for ego enhancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and approved of by others, or, what Dornyei (2005, pp. 93) calls the "self-system"
Constructivists regard motivation emphasizing even more on the social context and the personal choices of the individual (Williams & Burden, 1997, p.120). Motivation varies from person to person, thus each one interacts with his or her environment in unique ways that go hand in hand with environment (Douglas, 2007, p. 169). It is necessary to undergo a series of social needs in order to achieve our goal, according to Abraham Maslow (1970), being motivation the basis of it. Constructivists see in motivation interdependence between social interactions and the self-determination of the individual.
It can be seen that the three schools of thought connect their definition of motivation with needs. The need to attain a certain goal is what moves us to do the necessary to reach it, that need being the motivation that in many times is based on previous personal experiences or of those surrounding us. Motivation can be influenced in general by the social environment and its individuals, like our parents, peers, teachers, and so, hence the interdependence of the individual and the environment regarding to motivation.
In Second Language acquisition (2LA), motivation can come from the individual’s point of view regarding immediate and personal rewards, but also can have its roots in the necessities of the community that surrounds him or her and the possible rewards that can be attained in a short or long term.
Types of Motivation
Instrumental and Integrative Orientations. Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert (1972) carried significant studies in second language learning over 12 years with foreign language learners in parts of the United States, Canada, and the Philippines to determine the attitude and motivation factors that affected the success in language learning.
Gardner and Lambert identified two different clusters of attitudes that were divided in two basic types and called instrumental and integrative orientations of motivation (H. Douglas, 2007 p. 170).
Motivation was analyzed as a factor of a series of types of postures.
The instrumental orientation concerns the acquisition of a language as a vehicle for the achievement of instrumental ends like future success in academics, being able to understand specialized material, translate, and the related.
The integrative orientation depicts the acquirer who desires cultural integration in the people that forms the second language involving themselves in sociocultural interchange group.
Dorneyi (2001), Gardner and MacIntyre(1991), observed the instrumental and integrative orientation were not kinds of motivation, but more specific or appropriated denotations. So counting on the field of orientation of the learner that can be academic or sociocultural oriented, instrumental for the former and integrative for the latter, the corresponding necessities have to be achieved learning the target language. It is essential to distinguish orientation from motivation for we can have high or low motivational intensity in either. Two learners of can have different degrees of motivation to learn being in the same context of orientation.
Gardner and Lambert (1972) and Spolsky (1969) concluded that in order to succeed in language learning, integrativeness was an essential requisite based on their findings that threw the success in the high scores on proficiency tests that accompanied integrativeness. Yet Lukmani (1972) found evidence to refute it. In study applied on Marathi-speaking Indian students learning English as a foreign language in their country, the ones with instrumental orientation achieved higher scores in English proficiency tests.
Au (1988) did a review on 27 researches based on integrative-instrumental construct after an answer to the prerogatives regarding integrative and instrumental orientations. The conclusion was that equally the theoretical foundations and the instrumentation employed to evaluate motivation were suspicious. Since the cultural beliefs notions were the base of the dichotomy it resulted in a series of uncertainties, therefore foreign languge success was not easily attributed to either integrative or instrumental reasons. Au’s positions were argued byGardner and MacIntyre (1993b) with pragmatic sustenance to validate their methods.
Further researches threw ambiguous results. While Gardner favored the effectiveness of instrumental orientation in certain contexts (Gardner & Macintyre, 1991), others leaned for integrative orientation (Gardner, Day, & Macintyre, 1992). Studies applied by Warden and Lin (2000) did not throw any evidence of an integrative orientation in university students in Taiwan who were cursing a major in English. Another study carried later by Masgoret and Gardner (2003) showed that integrativeness was not a considerable factor as motivational intensity was.
Gardner and his collaborators (Gardner et al., 2004) concluded that integrative and instrumental orientation have approximately the same influence on university students of French in Canada. For Lamb (2004) integrative and instrumental constructs were virtually indistinguishable. It was not until Csizer and Dornyei (2005) concluded that 13 and 14 years old Hungarian foreign language students showed that major factor of success was integrativeness.
Those results do not entirely nullify the integrative and the instrumental construct (Brown, 2007). They put in evidence that the process of learning takes places in different ways depending on the circumstances. Some learners profit better from the instrumental orientation while other do it from the integrative orientation. It evidences that these two orientations are not reciprocally limited. The majority of instances of second language learning involve a combination of both orientations not being exclusively instrumental or integrative. Integrative as much as instrumental orientations might be essential for a successful acquisition of the language and the intensity of the influence of one or the other will depend on the academic context, cultural environment, teaching approach, and sociological contact of the individual.
It can be conveniently seen if we regard the integrative and the instrumental orientation construct as only two of an array of orientation.
Other researches go further (Dorneyeu, 2005: Noels et al., 2000) suggesting four orientations which are travel orientation, friendship orientation, knowledge orientation, and instrumental orientations.
According to Graham (1984), the definition of integrativeness was to general, therefore suggested that certain integrative orientations could be just a mild desire of socialization with speakers of the language studied, whereas profounder, assimilatory orientations could depict a profounder necessity to identify utterly with the culture of the target language, the longest the period, the better . Later, McClelland (2000) distinguished two types of integrativeness, that of the universal community of speakers of the language that might be fairly different from that which occurs with native speakers. Similarly the instrumentality might give a description of academic orientation on one side, and on the other a career or business orientation (Brown, 2007)
Therefore the amount of the motivation intensity can vary within any of the previously approached orientations or settings.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Beyond theories of motivation such as the integrative and the instrumental orientation there are the intrinsic and the extrinsic motivation. It is a dimension apart (Brown, 2007) of the construct of motivation regarding the grade of motivation that students have to achieve in a task intrinsically or extrinsically. The following is the definition of intrinsic definition given by Edward Deci (1975, p.23):
When an individual performs an activity where there is not an obvious reward with the exception of the very activity being performed it is an intrinsically motivated activity. Individuals appear to involve themselves in actions moved by their own interest and not in order to achieve an external, or extrinsic, reinforcement. The purpose of this kind of behavior is to give inner rewards, the sensation of capability and autonomy.
Conversely, the fuel to extrinsic motivation is a reward that can be foreseen coming from the outside the self. Most of the time the extrinsic rewards are monetary rewards, awards, degrees, or any kind of satisfactory feedback.
When the individual behaves a way that enables him or her to avoid punishment (Brown, 2007), the person is being extrinsically motivated, although there are many that see it as a challenging experience the illusion of punishment making it a feeling of autonomy and capability.
Brown, 1990; Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Dornyei & Csizer, 1998; Clement, & Pelletier, 1999; Noels et al. 2000; Dornyei, 2001a, 2001b, 1998; Wu, 2003 did research on motivation lean on the intrinsic orientation of motivation, particularly semi-permanent memory. People in general see indecision, insecurity and “disequilibrium” as a source of motivation, indicated Jean Piaget (1972) and others. It is as an inherent need to face challenges and commence behaviors to conquer those challenges.
Marlow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:
1. Biological and physiological needs – air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs – friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem needs – which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
5. Self-actualization needs – realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming” (Maslow, 1987, p. 64).
Intrinsic motivation has a conspicuous superiority before its extrinsic counterpart Maslow (1970). Motivation depends first on the gratification of the essential needs like air, food, and water, followed by security, identity, community, and self-esteem, according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the contentment of this carries a self-realization and success.
Maslow’s needs can be illustrated in a pyramid graphic placing in the base the basic needs, followed by the psychological needs, and finally on the top, the self-fulfillment needs. (Brown, 2007) Referred to the self-fulfillment as the culmination of human attainment.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990; Egbert, 2003; Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988) carried investigations of the effect of flow on ultimate fulfillment. The effect of flow, also known as flow theory, focuses on the significance of "an experiential state characterized by intense focus and involvement that leads to improved performance on a task. . . . Flow theory claims that as a result of the intrinsically rewarding experience associated with flow, people push themselves to higher levels of performance" (Egbert, 2003, p. 499).
Flow has been described as (Brown, 2007), "optimal experience," being "in the groove," when "everything gelled." The studies have shown that such optimum results come from the equilibrium of skills and challenges, the aptitude to concentrate on specific goals and the rewards of striving at a task.
This highlights the significance of intrinsic motivation and the necessity of the learners of being aware of it.
By liberating people, of any age, from the burden of recompenses and punishments (Jerome Bruner, 1966b) they can be helped in a more effective way. The apparition of addiction can be one of the main weaknesses of extrinsic motivation. The dependence to the rewards grows to the point that when they disappear so does the will to learn (Brown, 2007). An instance of this is what Ramage (1990) found in a research carried with high school students, those who had desired continue their studies above the prerequisites for college admission showed positive and intrinsic motivation to strive, while those who attended classes just to accomplish admission requirements showed lower motivation and level of performance.
Although Gardner’s integrative-instrumental orientation shows some similarities with intrinsic-extrinsic motivation construct, it is important to separate them (Brown, 2007). In many circumstances intrinsic motivation tends to be integrative, yet in some others it may not be. A person can be interested in developing his or her second language abilities to be more integrated in their career or be more successful academically; on the other hand the same can happen as response to economical demands, to get better grades or even acceptance of peers.
Notwithstanding the cultural background and positions of the learners and instructors (Brown, 2007), it is easy to identify intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. For instance, Dornyei and Csizer (1998) surveyed different teachers of English for Hungary proposing an assortment of elements that could be utilized by the instructors to motivate their students. These elements comprehended rapport with students, students’ confidence and independence, integration in the process of learning, and augmenting end focus being all these intrinsic motivation.
Motivation and Language Learning
Motivation is a basic and essential part of learning (Brewer & Burgess, 2005). Gardner (1885), believes that with the intention of being motivated, the learner necessitates, requires, and needs to have something to anticipate, foresee, expect and long for, a reason, principle, or rationale having to do with aim or target. Concerning second/foreign language acquisition, this intention would be learning a foreign language. In fact, there must be something that the learner desires to achieve or do, being the target language the vehicle to attain it.
According to Cook (2000) the performance and presentation of a number of learners in the context of second or foreign language learning is improved and superior than others. The reason is that they are better motivated. Ellis (1994) sees the incident of learning by means of motivation and believes that the learning process simply occurs when a person is motivated. Relating to this matter, Ellis (1994, p. 508) says that “language teachers readily acknowledge the importance of learners´ motivation, not infrequently explaining their own sense of failure with reference to their students´ lack of motivation”.
Cook (2000) states that acquisition of language is not the same among learners. He also believes that there are three main factors which influence the Second Language Acquisition. These three factors are: age, personality and motivation. Motivation is the most significant factor among the mentioned three factors that affect second language acquisition. Ellis (1994, p. 715) suggests that motivation is “the effort which learners put into learning an L2 as a result of their need or desire to learn it”. Also, Lightbrown and Spada (2001, p. 33) identify motivation in SLA as an intricate incident which can be identified along with two factors: “learners’ communicative needs and their attitudes towards the second language community”. They believe that when learners think that they need to speak the second language with the aim of being in touch with others or accomplishing and achieving specialized desires and goals, they will be motivated to obtain expertise and skill in it. Gardner and Lambert (1972) name the mentioned situation as integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. Research has proved that whether second language learning is successful or not directly and strongly concerns with these types of motivation (Lightbrown & Spada, 2001).
The Role of Motivation for English Teachers
Paying attention to the role of motivation in teaching process and developing, enforcing, and strengthening it, can be effective and helpful factor in the English learning process. Teacher’s awareness about learner’s attitude and its relationship with teaching process provides a framework by which language teacher can use more useful and more effective methods.
Briefly, motivation can be defined as a physical, psychological or social need which motivates the individual to reach or achieve his goal and fulfill his need and, finally, feel satisfied owing to achieving his aim. We can come to this idea that the amount, range, and type of motivation have important and determining role in the learning process. Moreover, the language teacher has a significant function and role in giving motivation to the learner for learning language.
Two kinds of motivation can be observed among learners; They are high attitude which has a positive, efficient, and useful effect, and the second one is low attitude which makes blocks and causes weakness for learning language.
As it was mentioned before, Motivation, indeed, involves two main classifications as below:
1. Intrinsic motivation
2. Extrinsic motivation
Relating to the previous discussion, briefly, intrinsic motivation is mental satisfaction which is achieved by others’ praise, while, extrinsic motivation is an incentive activated by external factors such as good marks and getting reward.
It is, indeed, important the teacher knows that the two types of motivation which are intrinsic, and extrinsic, relate to each other and they are inter-relative. In addition, the personal, psychological, and social factors have effect on increasing or decreasing any mentioned type of motivation. In fact, it is essential and important for the teacher to know what the type of motivation is and how it is formed, captured, and, finally, displayed in the learner. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations can have two subgroups that can activate the learners; The intrinsic motivation in an extroverted is in such a way that the learner takes advantage from and feels satisfy by communicating with others, while, in an introverted, the learner uses language for meditation and personal thinking in addition to personal activities and affairs. Indeed, rely on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, and for creating and developing either of them, the teacher should make the classroom quiet and without any anxiety. Providing educational and academic advantages, encouraging students, and asking simple and easy questions at the beginning of class (before asking difficult questions) will increase motivation for learning. Besides, the mentioned issues will fulfill the need of progress for the learner.
On the other hand, sometimes, motivation is an instrument for the students. In this sense, the learner uses, for example, English language in order to fulfill his or her needs. In fact, the teacher should know that English language as an instrument should have the worth of attempt for the learner. The aims of the class should be in such a way that motivates the learners who have instrumental motivation in order to become aware of and realize the value of the learner who thinks about English language as an instrument for reaching a particular goal such as achieving grades or passing examination. Also, it should be also mentioned, as a reality, that intrinsic motivation causes the learner to think that whether learning a specific issue (subject) is worth of effort and attempt or not.
That is, if the learner in his judgment comes to the conclusion that learning a language is not worthy or does not have functional value, he becomes disappointed and gives up learning that language.
To make the learner have a positive view about his own effort, some rewards such as grade, degree, and any sort of educational, scholastic, and academic encouragement should be given to him. Accordingly, the designed encouragements for the classes play an important role for achieving a good or a positive learning outcome. The learner, indeed, should know that his efforts are valued by teacher. Therefore, the teachers should be aware of all their students’ activities, even the minor and trivial ones. They should, subsequently, show positive responses (reactions) for the learners’ good affairs or activities. Thus, giving proper and appropriate rewards on account of the language learners’ behaviors is the significant and indispensable point. The teacher furthermore, should consider, pay attention, and, finally, strengthen the language learners’ positive behaviors and admirable activities arising from intrinsic, extrinsic, as well as integrated and instrumental motivation(s). In effect, strengthening or reinforcing the expected and desirable behaviors in the language teaching process is accomplished and achieved by encouragement, stimulating the feeling of curiosity and inquisitiveness about the cultures of the other nations, presenting and showing movie, as well as giving chance to the students.
Consequently, motivation directly influences and affects the language learner’s learning methods, skills, and practices. That is, motivation has a high effect on learner’s communication with foreigners, determining learning amount, in addition to developing the desired levels of language teaching such as reading, comprehension, speaking, and writing. Briefly, motivation has a direct effect on both quality and quantity of language learning.