The Search for Gold: The Mining Industry as a Source of Sustainable and Equal Development in Africa
Laura Baas, 6241379 & Kim Goolkate, 6314546
Development Themes
University of Utrecht
5 November, 2018
Words: 4537
Source: South African lobby group opposes parts of new draft mining charter (2018).
Bricsjournal.com. Retrieved from http://bricsjournal.com/south-african-lobby-group-opposes-parts-new-draft-mining-charter/
Introduction
The African continent is blessed with many natural reserves. The region ranks the highest among all continents in share of world reserves such as bauxite, chromite, cobalt, ilmenite, industrial diamond, manganese, phosphate rock, platinum-group metals, rutile, soda ash, vermiculite, and zirconium (Yager, et al., 2012). These minerals are mined for economic benefits and used in jewelry-making, industrial applications and investments. Africa has an estimate of 40 percent of gold, 60 percent of cobalt and 90 percent of the world’s platinum group metals. Cobalt is for example widely used for the battery in smartphones and the production of electric cars (Ecic, 2009). In this modernized world, we cannot live without smartphones and the investment in electric cars is necessary for the environment. For many natural-rich countries in Africa, the extraction and production of minerals are important parts of their economies. These countries depend on mineral extraction to secure future economic growth (Yager et al., 2012). To increase economic growth, African mining regulations have been focusing on attracting greater Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) since the 1980s. Foreign investment in the mining industry spurred economic growth in African countries, however it has not brought the desired development benefits such as job creation, equality, and human rights for local communities (World Bank, 2014). On the contrary, FDI also brought social conflicts, violation, child labour, and exploitation. While Africa is one of the best resources for mineral extraction, it’s still a hugely unequal and poor region (Berman et al., 2017). Mineral extraction also contributes to pollution. In the United States for example, his industry is ranked as the single largest source of toxic waste of all industries in the country and contribute to pollution, erosion, and sedimentation (Brusseau, 2004). As environmental damage has great consequences for local communities, it plays a relevant part in researching the social and economic effects of the mining industry in Africa.
Even though the African GDP grew by 5 percent over the last 25 years, illustrating economic growth, the poverty level remains very high. The Gini coefficient in sub-Saharan Africa remains one of the most unequal in the world (World Bank, 2018). While the extraction of minerals in Africa should benefit the local community, the opposite is true. Currently, only African elites and foreign companies take advantages of these mineral extraction (Janneh & Ping, 2011). To increase the position of local communities, this thesis will focus on the following research question:
How can the mining sector in Africa stimulate sustainable and equal development on a local scale in host countries?
By stimulating sustainable and equal development, the following four Sustainable Development Goals can be achieved: SDG 8: decent work and economic growth; SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure; SDG 10: Reduced inequalities and SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production (United Nations, 2018).
To answer the central question, this thesis is divided into four chapters. The first chapter provides an overview of mineral extraction and looks at the benefits and negative impacts of being a natural-rich country in Africa. This chapter also outlines some solutions for minimizing negative impacts. The second chapter will explain the colonial past of Sub-Saharan Africa. To understand the current situation of mineral extraction in Africa, the history of colonial rule in the region needs to be explained. In the third chapter, the consequences of foreign direct investment in the mineral industry is explained. The last chapter consists of policy recommendations for African governments and mining industries, such as inclusive development and Corporate Social Responsibility, followed by the conclusion of our research.
The effects of mineral extraction in Africa
Mining is one of the most important economic sources for certain African countries. The minerals are produced for the international trade market outside the continent. The African continent is rich of natural resources, including minerals such as bauxite, chromium, cobalt, diamonds, gold, manganese, phosphate, platinum group metals (PGMs) and titanium (Janneh & Ping, 2011). These minerals bring many positive aspects to the natural rich countries. Between 2001 and 2014 more than 60 percent of the export of the African continent was due to extractive industries (World Bank, 2014). An extractive industry is the process that include the extraction of raw materials from nature towards the consumer, which includes oil, gas but also minerals (World Bank, 2018).
At least eleven African countries rank the top ten global resource countries in the world (see figure 1). They all have at least one major mineral that can be extracted and sold to the (international) market (Holmes, 2015). Since the world is strongly dependent on minerals, natural rich countries in Africa could use their resources to increase their economic and social position in the world. However, there are many cases in Africa that show the opposite. For example, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has the world's largest reserves of cobalt. This makes the DRC potentially the richest country in the world. However, DRC has been ranked among the poorest and most underdeveloped countries on this planet (BBC, 2013). Countries with a rich bounty of minerals often go hand in hand with inequality, poverty, land grab and conflicts. This chapter will focus on inequality and mineral conflicts.
Figure 1: Eleven natural rich countries in Africa that are among the top ten global resource countries.
Source: Holmes, 2015
Inequality
Different research studies observed that natural-resource-poor countries have better development outcomes compared with natural-resource-rich countries (Addisson et al, 2017). This can be shown by looking at the GDP (PPP) per capita. For example, the Democratic Republic of Congo ranks position 179 on the list, Zimbabwe ranks 162 and Guinea is on place 158 (World Bank, 2017). All three countries are natural-resource-rich countries and are placed almost at the bottom of the list. Since natural-rich-countries have more minerals to export, it is striking to see that their GDP per capita is (relatively) low, compared to countries that have natural-resource-poor countries such as Luxembourg and Singapore, who are ranked on the second and third place of the GDP per capita list in the world (World Bank, 2017).
Also, every year the World Bank provides a list with the most unequal countries in the world (see figure 2). Comparing this list with figure 1, it is notable the countries shown in the list are similar to the countries shown in figure 2. South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zambia are even in the top four of the most unequal countries in the world (World Bank, 2018). Addisson (et al, 2017) have found some patterns in their study between mineral extraction and inequality. It is showed that mining activities indeed increase inequality in Africa, however mining activities could both have a positively and negatively impact on inequality, depending on other important forces that construct mining operations. If the mining sector is well connected to the local economy and local governments will get an appropriate share of resource revenues, the sector could boost employment and better salaries. Also, governments play an important role in achieving positive outcomes in the allotment of equality and equal payments. Implementing tax resource revenues could achieve better resource wealth (Ross, Lujala & Rustad, 2012).
Another problem that occurs often in a dominant mining industry is the Dutch Disease effect. This means that, in the case of the mining sector, when the mining industry increases, the development of other non-mining sectors will decline, endangering the promotion of other sectors. Sometimes this will lead to heavy losses of state owned industries, requiring large subsidies (Weber-Fahr et al, 2001).
Figure 2: The most unequal countries in the world: On a scale of 0 to 100, 0 represents total equality.
Source: World Bank (2018).
Mineral conflicts
Although mineral extraction has resulted in economic growth, different theoretical studies have shown a linkage between natural resources and the risk of conflict (Berman et al., 2017). Figure 3 shows areas with mining activities and figure 4 shows the number of conflicts in Africa. It is remarkable that those conflicts are often in the areas of mining activities. A report of Berman et al. (2017), shows that mining activity spreads violence across areas resulted by confrontations at the local level. Bazzi and Blattman (2014) distinguished some major channels through which minerals enlarge the risk of conflicts:
• First, one of the consequences of having natural resources is that it increases rebellion feasibility;
• Second, the prize to be seized through the capture of the area or the state will be increased when natural resources are present;
• Third, these countries are also often plagued by weak state capacity;
• Fourth, natural resource production is capital-intensive, which will boost capital-intensive production and reduce labor-intensive sectors. This will allow cheap labor for rebellion;
• Fifth, injustice can intensify with the presence of natural resources, which could be a result of frustrations from environmental depravity or banned access to mining jobs;
• Sixth, active mining industries attract migrants which often challenges the local populations in the mining areas in terms of ethnicity, gender, age and religion;
• Finally, the rise of local incomes in mining areas could increase the opportunity cost of rebellion, which could create the likelihood of conflict.
All issues above will occur when there is an inappropriate management of the mining industry. A good government, tax system and a clear mining policy will increase the economic and social development of a country and decrease inequality and mineral conflicts (Weber-Fahr et al, 2001). This will adhere to Sustainable Development Goal number 8: Decent work and economic growth, and Sustainable Development Goal number 10: reduce inequality (UN, 2018).
Figure 3: Active mining Areas in Africa (2010).
Source: World Bank (2015).
Figure 4: Number of conflicts in Africa, from January 2015 to December 2015.
Source: ACLED (2015).
Colonial past of the African continent
To understand the current (mining) situation in Africa, it is important to examine the past of the region. A central part of the history of the African continent is the prominent role that mostly Europeans, but also Americans, had in the region (Davidson, 2014). Approximately 500 years ago Europeans set their first step in the African continent, which brought improvements to both regions in terms of export of goods and ideas. However, it ultimately resulted in more negative impacts for the population of the African continent (Davidson, 2014). Slavery has been the most important negative phenomenon. Africa has been a major source of slaves collected by Europeans and send towards the Americas and other regions of the world. While this resulted in development for the Americas and Europeans, it did not for the Africa (Lovejoy, 2011). After 300 years of slavery, Europe lost their interest in shipping slaves towards the Americans. However, the role of Europeans is still prominent in the African region (Davidson, 2014).
During the nineteenth-century the Industrial Revolution started in European countries. Many European countries went from traditional agrarian economies to urban societies and started to grew spur economically. To become more urban and create economic growth, there was a high need for raw material and cheap labor (Kemp, 2013). However, some materials were only available in African countries. To gain these materials, European countries competed with each other over finding and controlling sources of raw materials, including minerals, in Africa. The goal of these European countries was simple: to gain economic benefit at the lowest price possible (Settles, 1996). Europe finally took possession of the region. However, to end the competition between European countries, a conference in Berlin was organized (Janneh & Ping, 2011). Between 1884 and 1885, European countries, including Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Spain and the Netherlands, agreed to invade Africa and take the region without going to war with each other and started to divide Africa into colonies. Each country invaded a region of interest (see figure 5), mostly favoured by the minerals available in the region (Davidson, 2014). Many Africans tried to defend themselves from the European invaders and protected the area where they lived in. However, Europeans won control over the region by using great technology and organization. Eventually European countries did not only take over the region, they also used African labor in the countries they colonized. Africans were often demoted to low-skilled, low-wage and dangerous work (Janneh & Ping, 2011). The African men being used in the labor market suffered tremendously. The working conditions were bad and the wages low (Davidson, 2014). A good example of the working conditions of African workers during the colonized area is the case of the Southern Rhodesian mines. In the Southern Rhodesian mines 30,000 African workers died between 1900 and 1933: 3,000 of these workers died by accidents and 27,000 by diseases (Kanki, 1995).
At the same time Europeans, still living in European countries, were attracted to Africa for the mineral-based opportunities, especially for the gold and diamonds, and migrated towards the continent. These new immigrants were denying access to mineral rights for the African population by implementing new policies. Also employment rights in the mining industry were in favor of these new immigrants. Africans were forced to take the jobs with poor working conditions and Europeans made sure that no Africans could reach positions of responsibility (Janneh & Ping, 2011). Another negative aspect brought by the European settlers, was that they implemented forced taxation for already poor Africans. An African trade unionist in 1929 described the European influence as follow: 'First the white man brought the Bible, Then he brought guns, then chains, then he built a jail, then he made the native pay tax' (Davidson, 2014, p. 17). In some cases, this money was used to pay the costs of European officials. On the other hand, some of it was used to build clinics, pay doctors, the treatment of diseases and education (Davidson, 2014). Infrastructure was built as well, yet it was mostly used for the investment of railways for the mining industry.
Independence
After a long period of colonial rule, it finally came to an end in 1951. However, it took some years for African countries to become totally independent from foreign rule (Davidson, 2014). Eventually, during the 1960s, most African countries became independent and liberation became standardized in new nation states (Smith & Jeppesen, 2017). Although colonialism brought many negative aspects towards the African continent, colonialism did promote the integration of these colonized countries into the world economy and modernized these countries as well. This could give African countries opportunities to increase economic growth. However, even though European countries no longer ruled the African continent, the interest of foreign companies in mineral extraction stayed (Janneh & Ping, 2011) and the European market still played an intensive role in the African economy (Settles, 1996). Africans remained unequal partners in the arena of economics and international trade, even though other regions are dependent on the minerals from this continent.
Figure 5: Africa in 1912 when most parts of the continent were under colonial rule.
Source: World Bank (2009).
Foreign Direct Investment
During the early 1980s, as a reaction to the debt crisis, African mining policies started to focus more on attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in order to accelerate economic growth (ILO, 2014). Whilst FDI has raised criticism over the years due to cases of land grabbing, environmental destruction and unequal trade, it has proven to be able to play a constructive role in “transferring capital, skills and know-how” (UNCTAD, 2005, p. 82). Additionally, it might bring new technologies and investments in infrastructure, as well as spill-overs between firms. This had to be done “through amended labour and social policies and more private sector-friendly ownership and taxation schemes” (ILO, 2014). Additionally, countries offered tax incentives and subsidies for foreign investors (Carkovic & Levine, 2005, p. 195). These new macroeconomic policies, along with larger trends of liberalization, deregulation and privatization led to an overall enhancement of FDI attractiveness of Africa and a significant part of these new FDI inflows got into the mining sector (UNCTAD, 2005, p. 48). Ghana was the first country to reform due to its adjustment programmes and renewed mining codes that reduced tax levels, eased immigration laws for expatriate workers and granted tax exemptions for imported equipment (UNCTAD, 2005, p. 41). This laid the foundations of the further development of Ghana, which is nowadays one of the first African countries to half the amount of citizens living in extreme poverty and consequently can be ranked as a middle-income country (World Bank, 2017).
Among the biggest countries investing in the African mining industry are China, India, Brazil and Australia: the Anglo-Australian company Rio Tinto is one of the largest multinationals in the worldwide mining industry. Moreover, South Africa has investments in Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). China is the biggest investor in the South-African mining industry. They own multiple mineral deposits at Zambia, South Africa, DRC and Zimbabwe (Vedie, 2017, p. 1). China supplies over 40 percent of the world demand for base metals, and their interest in mineral extraction is still growing (Vedie, 2017, p. 1; World Investment Report, 2017, p. 81). Whereas the global demand for mineral commodities used to increase by 1-2 percent a year during the 1980s and 1990s, the growth rates became much higher from 2000s onwards due to China’s rapid industrial expansion and urbanization (Janneh & Ping, 2011, p. 21). However, recent reports show that investments in the South-African mining industry have decreased (World Investment Report, 2017, p. 81). The DRC and Zambia, two leading exporters of minerals, saw a drop in FDI of 28 percent in 2016 (World Investment Report, 2017, p. 81). Even though the African mining industry has been the largest sector attracting foreign investors, the focus of foreign investment has gradually shifted towards other sectors. (Vedie, 2017, p.1). In 2016, for example, the largest investments came from the Asian-Pacific, who invested mainly in “real estate, hospitality and construction (RHC), and transport and logistics” (Jamasmie, 2017). Reasons given for an overall decline in foreign investments in Africa are regulatory uncertainty and political instability, creating Africa’s poor investment climate. Additionally, the presence of a considerable amount of natural resources and a large domestic market would contribute to a good investment climate, yet this last one is often lacking (Mwaanga, 2017, p. 29). As Africa is characterized by their enclave industry, meaning that their export-based industry is largely dominated by international corporations, a lack of investments will have a big impact on their economy. For example, a lack of investment leads to less mining employment, mining output and contribution to GDP (Arnoldi, 2018).
Some studies claim that attracting FDI for the means of development failed in Africa (UNCTAD, 2005, p. 1). Whilst there is only a small number of studies on the spill-overs of FDI in Africa, “these tend to confirm the wider conclusion, noted earlier, that these spill-overs are limited in nature and only detectable in the presence of a robust domestic private sector” (UNCTAD, 2005, p. 43). The problem lies in the fact that the extent to which FDI can have developmental benefits, depends on existing macroeconomic and structural conditions in the host country (UNCTAD, 2005, p. 82). For example, FDI spill-overs can most often only be exploited when the host country has a highly educated workforce (Borensztein, De Gregorio & Lee, 1995, p. 18). Host countries therefore have to promote their domestic private sector and regulate investment policies in order to make FDI more beneficial. For example, in Zambia, “[m]ost of the revenue generated from mining went into rehabilitation and expansions of existing mines, new exploration projects, development of new mines and rehabilitation of mining support companies,” making this country an example for other in terms of how to use revenues from the mining industry for development (Mwaanga, 2017, p. 39).
FDI as a cause of environmental damage and land grab
The environmental and social implications of FDI should not be forgotten in researching the impact of FDI on host countries, partly because they indirectly affect economic development as well. The mining industry is a specific one, due to its capital-intensive nature, low labour intensity, high risk, and unpredictability, as well as its reliance on non-renewable resources which puts high pressure on local communities. This makes FDI in the mining industry one of the largest sources of land grab, something that is increasingly happening due to the global trend of urbanization accompanied by an increasing demand for minerals. Land grab implies legal as well as illegal land acquisition for mass production of export goods. It drives local and indigenous communities from their lands, causing for a wide range of societal problems such as a damage to local cultures and a loss of work and income, often without proper compensating for this loss. Land grab is also closely related to conflicts, as seen in the DRC.
Additionally, due to the fact that mineral resources are non-renewable, the mining industry puts a lot of pressure on the environment. Environmental damage appears all along during the mineral extraction process, from the exploration of landscapes, to the building of infrastructure and the waste generated by mining. This has great impact on local communities and their livelihoods, as damage can include the removal of vegetation, soil erosion, land subsidence and a loss of biodiversity (UNCTAD, 2005, p. 51). Consequently, this affects the liveability of mining areas which has great social impact as well. The extraction of non-renewable natural resources has to be well-regulated. It is important to have clear and transparent contracts for businesses operating in the mining industry, to make sure no company is able to evade taxes or puts extraordinary pressure on the environment. For example, the African Development Bank can play an important role in stimulating higher royalty returns to African countries and in managing revenues (Anyanwu, 2012, p. 30).
Sustainable and Inclusive development
As mentioned in the previous chapters, Foreign Direct Investment did not bring the desired developmental benefit to the African mining industry. Land grab, environmental damage, a lack of economic spill-overs, conflicts and rising inequality are all among the effects of the high influx of foreign investments over the last decades. In order to make FDI work for sustainable development, African governments have to protect their interests against foreign investors through well-established mining and trade policies and should focus on creating a better investment climate.
The aim is to make business more inclusive, meaning that FDI is more closely linked to the host economy in terms of job creation, skills development and involving low-income communities in the value chain as a means to reduce poverty.
The Africa Mining Vision summit in 2009 introduced a new set of new policies to better integrate mining investments at local, national and regional levels. The Vision was organized by United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the African Development Bank, as well as officials from the African Union (AU). The policies included attracting strategic FDI, creating a conducive investment climate, incentives to link with local firms, investing in skills development, absorptive capacity in local industry, beneficiation and value addition, strengthening support to foreign investors, and revising International Trade and Investment frameworks (ILO, 2014). Attracting longer-term foreign investors by investing in a skilled local workforce is one of the ways to build a better investment climate, since they are more likely to invest in local development. Additionally, it promoted a better integration of the mining sector in the African market through “down-stream linkages into mineral beneficiation and manufacturing; up-stream linkages into mining capital goods, consumables & services industries; an side-stream linkages into infrastructure and skills & technology development” (Janneh & Ping, 2011, p. 19). Such linkage development programmes are not only promoted by the state, also multinational corporations include them to either enhance their market position or as a part of their CSR programme (ILO, 2014).
Corporate Social Responsibility
Multinational corporations are increasingly including Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programmes in their agenda, since they are playing a powerful role in directing the future of the mining industry and have other-sometimes closer-linkages to workers or local communities than the state. CSR is about including social responsibility programmes into businesses’ agendas. These can be focused on economic, social and environmental issues. CSR is a useful tool for development, as businesses are generally more occupied with improving working conditions of mine workers than the state and public (Janneh & Ping, 2011, p. 88). A big issue for businesses and governments is however to what extent they have to take responsibility in improving the lives of the people involved. Coordination between the two actors is often lacking, whilst cooperation in investment can benefit both if they fit into larger and longer-term plans (Janneh & Ping, 2011, p. 88). For example, both state governments as businesses will profit from better infrastructure. Good infrastructure will not only attract new investors to a place, it will also make doing business easier, more efficient and cheaper. Financing infrastructure has therefore a high potential, yet the question is where the investment has to come from the public or private sector.
Conclusion
The current-day mining industry in Africa is shaped by multiple actors and a long and intensive history of colonialism. Whereas the development of European countries spurred by resource extraction in Africa, it did not bring extensive benefits for the development of host countries. However, in order to reach the Sustainable Development Goals, governments and multinational corporations have been seeking for ways to turn Foreign Direct investment in the mining industry into a means for economic and social development. It is impossible to claim that the effects of FDI on social and economic growth have been either positive or negative, as there is enough evidence that the impact of FDI relies on the existing economic and political situation in the host country.
If African countries want (or better said: need) to rely on FDI inputs, they need to find a better balance between attracting foreign investors and protecting their own interests. The mining sector is a complex and dynamic one, as many actors are involved in bargaining investments and there is no such thing as a best tax regime, yet it is clear that the intrinsic macroeconomic situation in African countries needs to be stronger. At the one hand, African countries need to establish clearer and more consistent mining and trade policies as a means to enhance their investment climate, at the other, they need to seek for more inclusive development to distribute FDI spill-overs more equally in order to make it a sustainable way of developing.
However, more research is needed on the effects of FDI on the mining industry both in general, as on a more local scale. Most research is still focused on the effects of FDI in general, whilst the mining industry is such a complex, ever-changing and thus interesting sector to focus on. Moreover, the fact that African countries need to establish a better investment climate by investing in their political and economic situations asks for a more holistic approach to researching the link between the mining industry, foreign investment, local development and differences between host countries. For our individual research papers, we chose to focus on the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ghana to broaden this discussion and see how the different intrinsic characteristics of the countries have led to different developmental outcomes as a result of the increased interest in the mining industry.
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