Ethics and Code of Conduct for Psychologists
The American Psychological Association has set certain Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct (Ethics Code) that have to be followed by psychologists in order to arrive at an ethical course of action. The Ethics Code applies only to those activities that come under scientific, educational and professional roles as psychologists. The different areas covered include but not limited to clinical, counselling and school practice in psychology. They also include research, teaching, supervision of trainees, public services, development of assessment tools, policy making, designing the curriculum and interventions, evaluations and administration. Psychologist use these principles and Ethics Code to help individuals understand human behaviour, make informed judgments and choices, respect and help protect civil rights. Welfare and protection of the individual, organisation and society are of utmost importance to them. The Principles are listed as follows:
Principle A- Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Psychologists have to protect the welfare and safeguard the rights of individuals and animal subjects of research with whom they work. Because the actions and decisions taken by them can affect the lives of those they work with, they have to consider the physical, mental, social, financial, economic and organizational factors and see to it that the conclusions that are made have minimal harm on others if at all. They also strive to be aware of the effects of their own mental and physical ability on individuals with whom they work.
Principle B- Fidelity and Responsibility
Psychologists establish relationships of trust with whom they work. They clarify their roles based sceitnfric research and practice and with the specific communities they work. They also collaborate with professionals from other institutions to eradicate or minimalize the extent of harm done to the vulnerable individuals or groups. Keeping the ethical standards in mind, they also take the responsibility of making policies to safeguard the rights and protect the individuals and groups they work with.
Principle C- Integrity
Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, trust, honesty and righteousness. They do not steal or engage in fraud, or in any kind misinterpretation of others’ work They strive to keep their promises unless there is any risk of harm where deception may be ethically justifiable. Psychologists also have a serious obligation to consider the possible consequences of such behaviour and correct the resulting mistrust that stems from the use of such techniques.
Principle D- Justice
Psychologists ensure that all individuals are entitlesd to fair equal services, processes treatment, interventions. They also see to it that their potential biases, boundaries of competence, limited knowledge of expertise do not interfere with, or condone the use of just practices.
Principle E-Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity.
All individuals are considered equal irrespective of their race, gender, caste, economic background or any other factors. Psychologists duly protect people’s rights and dignity and respect the cultural differences, sexual orientation, language, disability, identity of the individuals or groups they work with. They don’t let their biases interfere with or condone the use of just practices.
Section 1: Resolving Ethical Issues
1.01 Misuse of Psychologists' Work
If the psychologists learn of the misuse or misinterpretation of their work, then the necessary steps are taken to correct or minimalist the issue.
1.02 Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority
If the psychologists’ responsibilites conflict with the law, regulations or other Governing Legal Authority then the clarify the nature of the conflict and make their objective clear to the Ethics Code and necessary steps are taken to solve the conflict that are consistent with the Ethics Code and Standards.
1.03 Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands
If the responsibilities organisations with whom the psychologists are affiliated or working with don’t abide by the Ethics Code, then the psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict and necessary steps are taken to solve the conflict that are consistent with the Ethics Code and Standards.
1.04 Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations
If the psychologists feel that there may have been any ethical violation by another psychologist then it is brought to the notice of that individual and the informal resolution taken is appropriate if the confidentiality rights are not violated.
1.05 Reporting Ethical Violations
If an apparent ethical violation has substantially harmed or is likely to substantially harm the individual or an organisation then further appropriate action is taken by psychologists.Such action might include referral to the state, or national committees on professional ethics, to state licensing boards, or to the appropriate institutional authorities. This standard does not apply when an intervention would violate confidentiality rights or when psychologists have been retained to review the work of another psychologist whose professional conduct is in question.
1.06 Co-operating with Ethics Committees
Psychologists have to cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings and resulting requirements of the APA or any affiliated state psychological association to which they belong. In doing so, they address any confidentiality issues. Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation. However, making a request for deferment of adjudication of an ethics complaint pending the outcome of litigation does not alone constitute noncooperation.
1.07 Improper Complaints
Psychologists do not encourage the filing of ethics complaints that have been made without proper consideration of appropriate facts.
1.08 Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents
Psychologists do not deny persons employment, advancement, or admission to other academic programs solely based on their having made or their being a subject of an ethics complaint. And this also does not preclude taking action based upon the outcome of such proceedings or considering other appropriate information.
Section 2: Competence
2.01 Boundaries of Competence
Psychologists conduct research, training,teach, supervise and study areas and populations only within their boundaries of competence. If extra knowledge is required in dealing with a particular group or regarding the above mentioned services and related to other social, economic factors, gender, culture, identity, race sexual orientation, disability, language then they undertake relevant education and gain experience in these various domains first. When assuming forensic roles, psychologists are or become reasonably familiar with the judicial or administrative rules governing their roles. In those emerging areas in which generally recognized standards for preparatory training do not yet exist, psychologists nevertheless take reasonable steps to ensure the competence of their work and to protect clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others from harm.
2.02 Providing Services in Emergencies
Psychologists provide services in areas or to individuals where mental health services are not available and in case of emergencies even though the necessary training and standards to administer interventions are not met, till the emergency has ended or the appropriate services are made available.
2.03 Maintaining Competence
Psychologists strive to develop and maintain their competence.
2.04 Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments
Psychologists’ work is based upon established and concrete evidence and knowledge in that discipline.
2.05 Delegation of Work to Others
Psychologists who delegate their work to trainees, supervisees, employees, research or teaching assistants or who use services of others such as interpreters, take reasonable steps to a)avoid giving such work to persons who share multiple relations with others that would lead to exploitation or loss of objectivity, b)tavoid giving work to those who are not skilled enough or don’t have the basic knowledge or experience to do such work, c)see to it that those given this work perform teir services competently.
2.06 Personal Problems and Conflicts
Psychologists refrain from initiating any activity that may interfere with their personal problems or conflicts. In case of such interference, they may seek help, consultation to decide if they should limit, suspend or terminate their work-related duties.
Section 3: Human Relations
3.01 Unfair Discrimination
In their work-related activities, psychologists do not engage in discrimination on the basis of race, identity, caste, gender, social, economic, cultural factors, national origin, ethnicity, religion, language, disability, sexual orientation.
3.02 Sexual Harassment
Psychologists do not engage in sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is sexual solicitation, physical advances, or verbal or nonverbal conduct that is sexual in nature, that occurs in connection with the psychologist's activities or roles as a psychologist, and that either (1) is unwelcome, is offensive, or creates a hostile workplace or educational environment, and the psychologist knows or is told this or (2) is sufficiently severe or intense to be abusive to a reasonable person in the context. Sexual harassment can consist of a single intense or severe act or of multiple persistent or pervasive acts.
3.03 Other Harassment
Psychologists do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing or demeaning to persons with whom they interact in their work based on factors such as those persons' age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status.
3.04 Avoiding Harm
a)Psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming their clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others with whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.
b)Psychologists do not participate in, facilitate, assist, or otherwise engage in torture, defined as any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person, or in any other cruel, inhuman, or degrading behavior that violates 3.04(a).
3.05 Multiple Relationships
a) A multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist is in a professional role with a person and (1) at the same time is in another role with the same person, (2) at the same time is in a relationship with a person closely associated with or related to the person with whom the psychologist has the professional relationship, or (3) promises to enter into another relationship in the future with the person or a person closely associated with or related to the person.
A psychologist refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if the multiple relationship could reasonably be expected to impair the psychologist's objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing his or her functions as a psychologist, or otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the person with whom the professional relationship exists. Multiple relationships that would not reasonably be expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or harm are not unethical.
b)If a psychologist finds that, due to unforeseen factors, a potentially harmful multiple relationship has arisen, the psychologist takes reasonable steps to resolve it with due regard for the best interests of the affected person and maximal compliance with the Ethics Code.
c)When psychologists are required by law, institutional policy, or extraordinary circumstances to serve in more than one role in judicial or administrative proceedings, at the outset they clarify role expectations and the extent of confidentiality and thereafter as changes occur.
3.06 Conflict of Interest
Psychologists refrain from taking on a professional role when personal, scientific, professional, legal, financial, or other interests or relationships could reasonably be expected to (1) impair their objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing their functions as psychologists or (2) expose the person or organization with whom the professional relationship exists to harm or exploitation.
3.07 Third-Party Requests for Services
When psychologists agree to provide services to a person or entity at the request of a third party, psychologists attempt to clarify at the outset of the service the nature of the relationship with all individuals or organizations involved. This clarification includes the role of the psychologist (e.g., therapist, consultant, diagnostician, or expert witness), an identification of who is the client, the probable uses of the services provided or the information obtained, and the fact that there may be limits to confidentiality.
3.08 Exploitative Relationships
Psychologists do not exploit other persons such as supervisees, trainees, students, research participants, clients/ patients, employees over whom they have authority.
3.09 Cooperation with Other Professionals
Psychologists cooperate with other professionals in order to render effective services to their clients/patients when indicated and appropriate.
3.10 Informed Consent
In research or while conducting assessments, it is important for psychologists to obtain informed consent of the participants or clients involved without breaching their rights and keeping their welfare as their topmost priority. For the persons who are legally incapable of giving consent, psychologists nevertheless (1) provide an appropriate explanation, (2) seek the individual's assent, (3) consider such persons' preferences and best interests, and (4) obtain appropriate permission from a legally authorized person, if such substitute consent is permitted or required by law. When consent by a legally authorized person is not permitted or required by law, psychologists take reasonable steps to protect the individual's rights and welfare.
When psychological services are court ordered or otherwise mandated, psychologists inform the individual of the nature of the anticipated services, including whether the services are court ordered or mandated and any limits of confidentiality, before proceeding. Psychologists appropriately document written or oral consent, permission, and assent.
3.11 Psychological Services Delivered to or Through Organizations
(a) Psychologists delivering services to or through organizations provide information beforehand to clients and when appropriate those directly affected by the services about (1) the nature and objectives of the services, (2) the intended recipients, (3) which of the individuals are clients, (4) the relationship the psychologist will have with each person and the organization, (5) the probable uses of services provided and information obtained, (6) who will have access to the information, and (7) limits of confidentiality. As soon as feasible, they provide information about the results and conclusions of such services to appropriate persons.
(b) If psychologists will be precluded by law or by organizational roles from providing such information to particular individuals or groups, they so inform those individuals or groups at the outset of the service.
3.12 Interruption of Psychological Services
Unless otherwise covered by contract, psychologists make reasonable efforts to plan for facilitating services in the event that psychological services are interrupted by factors such as the psychologist's illness, death, unavailability, relocation, or retirement or by the client's/patient's relocation or financial limitations.
Section 4: Privacy and Confidentiality
4.01 Maintaining Confidentiality
Psychologists have a primary obligation of keeping the information obtained through any medium strictly confidential as per Law and Ethical Standards.
4.02 Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality
a)Psychologists discuss with persons (including, to the extent feasible, persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent and their legal representatives) and organizations with whom they establish a scientific or professional relationship (1) the relevant limits of confidentiality and (2) the foreseeable uses of the information generated through their psychological activities.
b)Unless it is not feasible or is contraindicated, the discussion of confidentiality occurs at the outset of the relationship and thereafter as new circumstances may warrant.
c)Psychologists who offer services, products, or information via electronic transmission inform clients/patients of the risks to privacy and limits of confidentiality.
4.03 Recording
The psychologists obtain the permission of the individuals or their legal representatives before recording the voices or images of individuals.
4.04 Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy
Psychologists include only the information that is relevant to the purpose in their oral and written reports. They use the information only for appropriate scientific and professional purposes and that too, with persons who are clearly concerned with such matters.
4.05 Disclosures
a)Psychologists may disclose confidential information with the appropriate consent of the organizational client, the individual client/patient, or another legally authorized person on behalf of the client/patient unless prohibited by law.
b)Psychologists disclose confidential information without the consent of the individual only as mandated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid purpose such as to (1) provide needed professional services; (2) obtain appropriate professional consultations; (3) protect the client/patient, psychologist, or others from harm; or (4) obtain payment for services from a client/patient, in which instance disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve the purpose.
4.06 Consultations
When consulting with colleagues, psychologists do not disclose information that may reveal the identity of the organisational client, or individual client/patient or the company they have a confidential relationship with without prior consent for the concerned party. They disclose only the information that is necessary for consultation.
4.07 Use of Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes
Psychologists do not disclose in their writings, lectures, or other public media, confidential, personally identifiable information concerning their clients/patients, students, research participants, organizational clients, or other recipients of their services that they obtained during the course of their work, unless (1) they take reasonable steps to disguise the person or organization, (2) the person or organization has consented in writing, or (3) there is legal authorization for doing so.
Section 5: Advertising and Other Public Statements
5.01 Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements
a)Psychologists do not knowingly make public statements that are false, deceptive, or fraudulent concerning their research, practice, or other work activities or those of persons or organizations with which they are affiliated.
b)Psychologists do not make false, deceptive, or fraudulent statements concerning (1) their training, experience, or competence; (2) their academic degrees; (3) their credentials; (4) their institutional or association affiliations; (5) their services; (6) the scientific or clinical basis for, or results or degree of success of, their services; (7) their fees; or (8) their publications or research findings.
c)Psychologists claim degrees as credentials for their health services only if those degrees (1) were earned from a regionally accredited educational institution or (2) were the basis for psychology licensure by the state in which they practice.
5.02 Statements by Others
a)Psychologists who engage others to create or place public statements that promote their professional practice, products, or activities retain professional responsibility for such statements.
b)Psychologists do not compensate employees of press, radio, television, or other communication media in return for publicity in a news item.
c)A paid advertisement relating to psychologists' activities must be identified or clearly recognizable as such.
5.03 Descriptions of Workshops and Non-Degree-Granting Educational Programs
psychologists responsible for announcements, catalogs, brochures, or advertisements describing workshops, seminars, or other non-degree-granting educational programs ensure that they accurately describe the audience for which the program is intended, the educational objectives, the presenters, and the fees involved.
5.04 Media Presentations
Psychologists making statements or give public advice via Internet, or any electronic transmission ensure that these statements are based on their professional knowledge, experience and practice; in accord with psychological literature and evidence based practices, abide by the Ethics Code and and do not indicate any professional relationship with the recipient.
5.05 Testimonials
Psychologists do not solicit testimonials from current therapy clients/patients or other persons who because of their particular circumstances are vulnerable to undue influence.
5.06 In-Person Solicitation
Psychologists do not engage, directly or through agents, in uninvited in-person solicitation of business from actual or potential therapy clients/patients or other persons who because of their particular circumstances are vulnerable to undue influence. However, this prohibition does not preclude (1) attempting to implement appropriate collateral contacts for the purpose of benefiting an already engaged therapy client/patient or (2) providing disaster or community outreach services.
Section 6: Record Keeping and Fees
6.01 Documentation of Professional and Scientific Work and Maintenance of Records
Psychologists create, and to the extent the records are under their control, maintain, disseminate, store, retain, and dispose of records and data relating to their professional and scientific work in order to (1) facilitate provision of services later by them or by other professionals, (2) allow for replication of research design and analyses, (3) meet institutional requirements, (4) ensure accuracy of billing and payments, and (5) ensure compliance with law
6.02 Maintenance, Dissemination, and Disposal of Confidential Records of Professional and Scientific Work
a)Psychologists maintain confidentiality in creating, storing, accessing, transferring, and disposing of records under their control, whether these are written, automated, or in any other medium.
b)If confidential information concerning recipients of psychological services is entered into databases or systems of records available to persons whose access has not been consented to by the recipient, psychologists use coding or other techniques to avoid the inclusion of personal identifiers.
c)Psychologists make plans in advance to facilitate the appropriate transfer and to protect the confidentiality of records and data in the event of psychologists' withdrawal from positions or practice.
6.03 Withholding Records for Nonpayment
Psychologists may not withhold records that are under their control for nonpayment if the client/patient information is requested by some other source for emergency treatment.
6.04 Fees and Financial Arrangements
a)As early as is feasible in a professional or scientific relationship, psychologists and recipients of psychological services reach an agreement specifying compensation and billing arrangements.
b)Psychologists' fee practices are consistent with law.
c)Psychologists do not misrepresent their fees.
d)If limitations to services can be anticipated because of limitations in financing, this is discussed with the recipient of services as early as is feasible.
e)If the recipient of services does not pay for services as agreed, and if psychologists intend to use collection agencies or legal measures to collect the fees, psychologists first inform the person that such measures will be taken and provide that person an opportunity to make prompt payment
6.05 Barter with Clients/Patients
Barter is the acceptance of goods, services, or other nonmonetary remuneration from clients/patients in return for psychological services. Psychologists may barter only if (1) it is not clinically contraindicated, and (2) the resulting arrangement is not exploitative.
6.06 Accuracy in Reports to Payors and Funding Sources
In their reports to payors for services or sources of research funding, psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure the accurate reporting of the nature of the service provided or research conducted, the fees, charges, or payments, and where applicable, the identity of the provider, the findings, and the diagnosis.
6.07 Referral and Fees
When psychologists pay, receive payment from, or divide fees with another professional, other than in an employer-employee relationship, the payment to each is based on the services provided (clinical, consultative, administrative, or other) and is not based on the referral itself.
Section 7: Education and Training
7.01 Design of Education and Training Programs
Psychologists responsible for designing education and training programs take reasonable steps to ensure the quality effectiveness and appropriate knowledge and proper experiences are delivered and requirements for licensure, certification, or other goals for which claims are made by the program are met.
7.02 Descriptions of Education and Training Programs
Psychologists responsible for education and training programs take reasonable steps to ensure that there is a current and accurate description of the program content (including participation in required course- or program-related counseling, psychotherapy, experiential groups, consulting projects, or community service), training goals and objectives, stipends and benefits, and requirements that must be met for satisfactory completion of the program. This information must be made readily available to all interested parties.
7.03 Accuracy in Teaching
a)Psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that course syllabi are accurate regarding the subject matter to be covered, bases for evaluating progress, and the nature of course experiences. This standard does not preclude an instructor from modifying course content or requirements when the instructor considers it pedagogically necessary or desirable, so long as students are made aware of these modifications in a manner that enables them to fulfill course requirements.
b)When engaged in teaching or training, psychologists present psychological information accurately.
7.04 Student Disclosure of Personal Information
Psychologists do not require students or supervisees to disclose personal information in course- or program-related activities, either orally or in writing, regarding sexual history, history of abuse and neglect, psychological treatment, and relationships with parents, peers, and spouses or significant others except if (1) the program or training facility has clearly identified this requirement in its admissions and program materials or (2) the information is necessary to evaluate or obtain assistance for students whose personal problems could reasonably be judged to be preventing them from performing their training- or professionally related activities in a competent manner or posing a threat to the students or others.
7.05 Mandatory Individual or Group Therapy
a)If individual or group therapy is a course requirement, then psychologists responsible for that program can allow the undergraduates and supervisees to go to practitioners unaffiliated to the program for therapy.
b)Faculty who are or likely to evaluate the students’ academic performance do not provide therapy.
7.06 Assessing Student and Supervisee Performance
a)In academic and supervisory relationships, psychologists establish a timely and specific process for providing feedback to students and supervisees. Information regarding the process is provided to the student at the beginning of supervision.
b)Psychologists evaluate students and supervisees on the basis of their actual performance on relevant and established program requirements.
7.07 Sexual Relationships with Students and Supervisees
Psychologists do not engage in sexual relationships with students or supervisees who are in their department, agency, or training center or over whom psychologists have or are likely to have evaluative authority.
Section 8: Research Publication
8.01 Institutional Approval
Psychologists provide accurate information about their research proposals and seek the institutional permission prior to conducting research. They work as per the research protocol.
8.02 Informed Consent to Research
a)When obtaining informed consent as required in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, psychologists inform participants about (1) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures; (2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun; (3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; (5) any prospective research benefits; (6) limits of confidentiality; (7) incentives for participation; and (8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants' rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective participants to ask questions and receive answers.
b)Psychologists conducting intervention research involving the use of experimental treatments clarify to participants at the outset of the research (1) the experimental nature of the treatment; (2) the services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) if appropriate; (3) the means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made; (4) available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw once a study has begun; and (5) compensation for or monetary costs of participating including, if appropriate, whether reimbursement from the participant or a third-party payor will be sought.
8.03 Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research
Psychologists obtain informed consent from research participants prior to recording their voices or images for data collection unless (1) the research consists solely of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal identification or harm, or (2) the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is obtained during debriefing.
8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants
a)When psychologists conduct research with clients/patients, students, or subordinates as participants, psychologists take steps to protect the prospective participants from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing from participation.
b)When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, the prospective participant is given the choice of equitable alternative activities.
8.05 Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research
Psychologists may dispense with informed consent only (1) where research would not reasonably be assumed to create distress or harm and involves (a) the study of normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods conducted in educational settings; (b) only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or damage their financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is protected; or (c) the study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organizational settings for which there is no risk to participants' employability, and confidentiality is protected or (2) where otherwise permitted by law or federal or institutional regulations.
8.06 Offering Inducements for Research Participation
a)Psychologists make reasonable efforts to avoid offering excessive or inappropriate financial or other inducements for research participation when such inducements are likely to coerce participation.
b)When offering professional services as an inducement for research participation, psychologists clarify the nature of the services, as well as the risks, obligations, and limitations.
8.07 Deception in Research
a)Psychologists do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study's significant prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and that effective nondeceptive alternative procedures are not feasible.
b)Psychologists do not deceive prospective participants about research that is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.
c)Psychologists explain any deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an experiment to participants as early as is feasible, preferably at the conclusion of their participation, but no later than at the conclusion of the data collection, and permit participants to withdraw their data.
8.08 Debriefing
a)Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research, and they take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions that participants may have of which the psychologists are aware.
b)If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.
c)When psychologists become aware that research procedures have harmed a participant, they take reasonable steps to minimize the harm.
8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research
a)Psychologists acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals in compliance with current federal, state, and local laws and regulations, and with professional standards.
b)Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals supervise all procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane treatment.
c)Psychologists ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role.
d)Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects.
e)Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress, or privation only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value.
f)Psychologists perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain during and after surgery.
g)When it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, psychologists proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures.
8.10 Reporting Research Results
a)Psychologists do not fabricate data.
b)If psychologists discover significant errors in their published data, they take reasonable steps to correct such errors in a correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication means.
8.11 Plagiarism
a)Psychologists do not present portions of another's work or data as their own, even if the other work or data source is cited occasionally.
8.12 Publication Credit
a)Psychologists take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit, only for work they have actually performed or to which they have substantially contributed.
b)Principal authorship and other publication credits accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their relative status. Mere possession of an institutional position, such as department chair, does not justify authorship credit. Minor contributions to the research or to the writing for publications are acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or in an introductory statement.
c)Except under exceptional circumstances, a student is listed as principal author on any multiple-authored article that is substantially based on the student's doctoral dissertation. Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with students as early as feasible and throughout the research and publication process as appropriate.
8.12 Duplicate Publication of Data
Psychologists do not publish, as original data, data that have been previously published. This does not preclude republishing data when they are accompanied by proper acknowledgment.
8.13 Sharing Research Data for Verification
a)After research results are published, psychologists do not withhold the data on which their conclusions are based from other competent professionals who seek to verify the substantive claims through reanalysis and who intend to use such data only for that purpose, provided that the confidentiality of the participants can be protected and unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude their release. This does not preclude psychologists from requiring that such individuals or groups be responsible for costs associated with the provision of such information.
b)Psychologists who request data from other psychologists to verify the substantive claims through reanalysis may use shared data only for the declared purpose. Requesting psychologists obtain prior written agreement for all other uses of the data.
8.15 Reviewers
Psychologists who review material submitted for presentation, publication, grant, or research proposal review respect the confidentiality of and the proprietary rights in such information of those who submitted it.
Section 9: Assessment
9.01 Bases for Assessments
a)Psychologists base the opinions contained in their recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or evaluative statements, including forensic testimony, on information and techniques sufficient to substantiate their findings.
b)Psychologists provide opinions of the psychological characteristics of individuals only after they have conducted an examination of the individuals adequate to support their statements or conclusions. When, despite reasonable efforts, such an examination is not practical, psychologists document the efforts they made and the result of those efforts, clarify the probable impact of their limited information on the reliability and validity of their opinions, and appropriately limit the nature and extent of their conclusions or recommendations.
c)When psychologists conduct a record review or provide consultation or supervision and an individual examination is not warranted or necessary for the opinion, psychologists explain this and the sources of information on which they based their conclusions and recommendations.
9.02 Use of Assessments
a)Psychologists administer, adapt, score, interpret, or use assessment techniques, interviews, tests, or instruments in a manner and for purposes that are appropriate in light of the research on or evidence of the usefulness and proper application of the techniques.
b)Psychologists use assessment instruments whose validity and reliability have been established for use with members of the population tested. When such validity or reliability has not been established, psychologists describe the strengths and limitations of test results and interpretation.
c)Psychologists use assessment methods that are appropriate to an individual's language preference and competence, unless the use of an alternative language is relevant to the assessment issues.
9.03 Informed Consent in Assessments
a)Psychologists obtain informed consent for assessments, evaluations, or diagnostic services, as described in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, except when (1) testing is mandated by law or governmental regulations; (2) informed consent is implied because testing is conducted as a routine educational, institutional, or organizational activity (e.g., when participants voluntarily agree to assessment when applying for a job); or (3) one purpose of the testing is to evaluate decisional capacity. Informed consent includes an explanation of the nature and purpose of the assessment, fees, involvement of third parties, and limits of confidentiality and sufficient opportunity for the client/patient to ask questions and receive answers.
b)Psychologists inform persons with questionable capacity to consent or for whom testing is mandated by law or governmental regulations about the nature and purpose of the proposed assessment services, using language that is reasonably understandable to the person being assessed.
c)Psychologists using the services of an interpreter obtain informed consent from the client/patient to use that interpreter, ensure that confidentiality of test results and test security are maintained, and include in their recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or evaluative statements, including forensic testimony, discussion of any limitations on the data obtained.
9.04 Release of Test Data
a)The term test data refers to raw and scaled scores, client/patient responses to test questions or stimuli, and psychologists' notes and recordings concerning client/patient statements and behavior during an examination. Those portions of test materials that include client/patient responses are included in the definition of test data. Pursuant to a client/patient release, psychologists provide test data to the client/patient or other persons identified in the release. Psychologists may refrain from releasing test data to protect a client/patient or others from substantial harm or misuse or misrepresentation of the data or the test, recognizing that in many instances release of confidential information under these circumstances is regulated by law.
b)In the absence of a client/patient release, psychologists provide test data only as required by law or court order.
9.05 Test Construction
Psychologists who develop tests and other assessment techniques use appropriate psychometric procedures and current scientific or professional knowledge for test design, standardization, validation, reduction or elimination of bias, and recommendations for use.
9.06 Interpreting Assessment Results
When interpreting assessment results, including automated interpretations, psychologists take into account the purpose of the assessment as well as the various test factors, test-taking abilities, and other characteristics of the person being assessed, such as situational, personal, linguistic, and cultural differences, that might affect psychologists' judgments or reduce the accuracy of their interpretations. They indicate any significant limitations of their interpretations.
9.07 Assessment by Unqualified Persons
Psychologists do not promote the use of psychological assessment techniques by unqualified persons, except when such use is conducted for training purposes with appropriate supervision.
9.08 Obsolete Tests and Outdated Test Results
a)Psychologists do not base their assessment or intervention decisions or recommendations on data or test results that are outdated for the current purpose.
b)Psychologists do not base such decisions or recommendations on tests and measures that are obsolete and not useful for the current purpose.
9.09 Test Scoring and Interpretation Services
a)Psychologists who offer assessment or scoring services to other professionals accurately describe the purpose, norms, validity, reliability, and applications of the procedures and any special qualifications applicable to their use.
b)Psychologists select scoring and interpretation services (including automated services) on the basis of evidence of the validity of the program and procedures as well as on other appropriate considerations.
c)Psychologists retain responsibility for the appropriate application, interpretation, and use of assessment instruments, whether they score and interpret such tests themselves or use automated or other services.
9.10 Explaining Assessment Results
Regardless of whether the scoring and interpretation are done by psychologists, by employees or assistants, or by automated or other outside services, psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that explanations of results are given to the individual or designated representative unless the nature of the relationship precludes provision of an explanation of results (such as in some organizational consulting, preemployment or security screenings, and forensic evaluations), and this fact has been clearly explained to the person being assessed in advance.
9.11 Maintaining Test Security
The term test materials refers to manuals, instruments, protocols, and test questions or stimuli. Psychologists make reasonable efforts to maintain the integrity and security of test materials and other assessment techniques consistent with law and contractual obligations, and in a manner that permits adherence to this Ethics Code.